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The Plume Also Rises: Trajectories of Pheromone Plumes Issuing from Point Sources in an Orchard Canopy at Night

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Abstract

The trajectories of pheromone plumes in canopied habitats, such as orchards, have been little studied. We documented the capture of male navel orangeworm moths, Amyelois transitella, in female-baited traps positioned at 5 levels, from ground level to the canopy top, at approximately 6 m above ground, in almond orchards. Males were captured in similar proportions at all levels, suggesting that they do not favor a particular height during ranging flight. A 3-D sonic anemometer was used to establish patterns of wind flow and temperature at 6 heights from 2.08 to 6.65 m in an almond orchard with a 5 m high canopy, every 3 h over 72 h. The horizontal velocity of wind flow was highest above the canopy, where its directionality also was the most consistent. During the time of A. transitella mating (0300–0600), there was a net vertical displacement upward. Vertical buoyancy combined with only minor reductions in the distance that plumes will travel in the lower compared to the upper canopy suggest that the optimal height for release of pheromone from high-release-rate sources, such as aerosol dispensers (“puffers”), that are deployed at low densities (e.g., 3 per ha.) would be at mid or low in the canopy, thereby facilitating dispersion of disruptant throughout the canopy. Optimal placement of aerosol dispensers will vary with the behavioral ecology of the target pest; however, our results suggest that current protocols, which generally propose dispenser placement in the upper third of the canopy, should be reevaluated.

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Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Paramount Farming Co., the Almond Board of California, and the California Pistachio Research Commission for support. Candice Rogers, Johnny Magana, Cesar Higuera, and Emmanuel Higuera provided excellent technical assistance.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK

    Robbie D. Girling

  2. Paramount Farming Company, 33141 East Lerdo Highway, Bakersfield, CA, 93308, USA

    Bradley S. Higbee

  3. Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA

    Ring T. Cardé

Authors
  1. Robbie D. Girling
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  2. Bradley S. Higbee
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  3. Ring T. Cardé
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ring T. Cardé.

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Suppl. Figure 1

A. The sonic anemometer rig, used to measure orthogonal wind components and temperature, situated between two rows of almond trees. The rig consisted of: 1. the anemometer head; 2. the control box; 3. the aluminum tripod. B. The tripod fully extended, holding the anemometer head at 6.65 m above ground level. (EPS 108132 kb) (GIF 13869 kb)

High resolution image (EPS 108132 kb)

Suppl. Figure 2

Mean wind direction recorded within (<5 m) and above (>5 m) the canopy of an almond orchard. Measurements were taken over 5 min periods at six different heights above ground level every 3 h between 13.7 and 16.7.2010. Arrows indicate the mean wind direction and the length of each arrow represents the mean vector length (r-value) of the corresponding mean direction. (GIF 64 kb)

High resolution image (EPS 735 kb)

Suppl. Figure 3

Circular standard deviation of the mean wind direction, in degrees, recorded over a 5 min period within (<5 m) and above (>5 m) the canopy of an almond orchard. Measurements were taken at six different heights above ground level every 3 h between 13.7 and 16.7. For each measurement, mean wind direction is adjusted to zero degrees to allow for direct comparison of standard deviations. White bars represent measurements taken on day block 1, light grey day block 2 and dark grey day block 3. (JPEG 152 kb)

High resolution image (EPS 1255 kb)

Suppl. Figure 4

The percentage of time that wind blew at different vertical vectors, over a 5 min period, within (<5 m) and above (>5 m) the canopy of an almond orchard. Measurements were taken at six different heights above ground level every 3 h between 13.7 and 16.7.2010. Positive angles equate to the wind blowing upwards at that angle, negative angles downward and the hashed line horizontal. Within each plot a semi-circle depicts the mean directional vector, within the vertical plane, for each measurement height at that time point on that day. The line dividing the semi-circle equates to a completely horizontal vector of zero degrees. The shade of the arrowheads indicate the measurement height, a black head representing 2.08 m, a white head 6.65 m and increments of grey the four heights in between. (JPEG 207 kb)

High resolution image (TIFF 478618 kb)

Suppl. Figure 5

Example of plume dispersion of TiCl4 from a 1-cm-long cotton wick (lower left) mounted on a horizontal 2-cm diameter pipe placed in the interior canopy of an almond tree. Photographs were taken on August 4, 2009 at 22:30. The movement of the plume is gradually upward. (JPEG 924 kb)

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Girling, R.D., Higbee, B.S. & Cardé, R.T. The Plume Also Rises: Trajectories of Pheromone Plumes Issuing from Point Sources in an Orchard Canopy at Night. J Chem Ecol 39, 1150–1160 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-013-0341-9

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