Abstract
Using automated solid-phase dynamic extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, our search for urinary chemical signals from ovulatory female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) has revealed the bark beetle aggregation pheromones frontalin, exo-brevicomin, and endo-brevicomin, as well as their precursors and the aphid alarm pheromones (E,E)-α-farnesene and (E)-β-farnesene. Enantiomeric ratios for brevicomins have been determined. Prior discovery of common insect/elephant pheromones in Asian elephants, namely, (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate and frontalin, suggests that the present findings may yield valuable insights into chemical communication among African elephants.
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Notes
The presence of both exo- and endo-brevicomin in the urine suggests the presence of both (E)- and (Z)-6-nonen-2-one precursors. Nonetheless, these are not yet separable via GC, and their mass spectra are similar; thus, the presence of both cannot be verified.
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Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Scott and Heidi Riddle (Riddle's Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary) for advice and assistance. Elephant urine samples and/or bioassay opportunities were provided by: Addo Elephant National Park (AENP; South Africa), Baltimore Zoo, Bowmanville Zoo, Cameron Park Zoo, Indianapolis Zoo, Knoxville Zoo, Lion Country Safari, Louisville Zoo, Memphis Zoo, Miami Metro Zoo, Nashville Zoo (R. and C. Pankow), North Carolina Zoo, Riddle's Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Sedgwick County Zoo, Seneca Park Zoo, Six Flags Marine World, Toledo Zoo, West Palm Beach Zoo, and Wildlife Safari Park. Assistance was provided by Dr. G. Kerley and Dr. A. Whitehouse (Univ. Port Elizabeth), Mr. L. Moolman and Mr. J. Adendorf (AENP), and Mr. P. Jones (Tanzania). We thank Dr. J. Brown and her staff at the Elephant Endocrine Laboratory at the Conservation and Research Center, Smithsonian National Zoological Park, for providing estrous data that aided in timing urine collections and bioassays. Ingo Christ (Chromsys) provided SPDE assistance. We thank J. P. Lafontaine of Pherotech for samples. T.E.G., B.A.S., and L.E.L.R. are grateful to the National Science Foundation (NSF-DBI-02-17068, -17062, and -16862, respectively) for financial support.
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Goodwin, T.E., Eggert, M.S., House, S.J. et al. Insect Pheromones and Precursors in Female African Elephant Urine. J Chem Ecol 32, 1849–1853 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-006-9094-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-006-9094-z