Abstract
We propose a new model with microbreaking and linear dependence on wind speed in the whitecap-free area and linear dependence on the fractional area of whitecaps, based on the whitecap model proposed by Monahan and Spillane (The role of oceanic whitecap in air–sea gas exchange. In: Brutsaert W, Jirka GH (eds) Gas transfer at water surfaces. Reidel, Dordrecht, 495–503, 1984). The relationship between whitecap coverage and wind–sea Reynolds number proposed by Zhao and Toba (J Oceanogr 57:603–616, 2001) provides the link among waves, wind, and whitecap coverage. This model yields a mass transfer velocity that is linear in wind speed at light winds and smoothly transitions with increasing wind to approximately cubic in wind speed and linear in wave age.
References
Alaee M, Donelan MA, Strachan WMJ (1995) Wind and wave effects on mass transfer velocities of halomethanes and SF measured in a gas transfer flume. In: Jähne B, Monahan EC (eds) Air–water gas transfer. AEON, Verlag & Studio, pp 617–626
Deacon EL (1977) Gas transfer to and across an air–water interface. Tellus 29:363–374
Donelan MA, Plant WJ (2009) A threshold for wind-wave growth. J Geophys Res 114:C07012. doi:10.1029/2008JC005238
Donelan MA, Curcic M, Chen SS, Magnusson AK (2012) Modeling waves and wind stress. J Geophys Res 117:C00J23. doi:10.1029/2011JC007787
Edson JB, Jampana V, Weller RA, Bigorre SP, Plueddemann AJ, Fairall CW, Miller SD, Mahrt L, Vickers D, Hersbach H (2013) On the exchange of momentum over the open ocean. J Phys Oceanogr 43:1589–1610. doi:10.1175/JPO-D-12-0173.1
Iwano K, Takagaki N, Kurose R, Komori S (2013) Mass transfer velocity across the breaking air–water interface at extremely high wind speeds. Tellus 65B:21341. doi:10.3402/tellusb.v65i0.21341
Jahne B, Munnich KO, Bosinger R, Dutzi A, Huber W et al (1987) On the parameters influencing air–water gas exchange. J Geophys Res 92:1937–1949
Jeong D, Haus BK, Donelan MA (2012) Enthalpy transfer across the air–water interface in high winds including spray. J Atmos Sci 69:2733–2748. doi:10.1175/JAS-D-11-0260.1
Kader BA, Yaglom AM (1972) Heat and mass transfer loss for fully turbulent wall flows. Int J Heat Mass Transf 15:2329–2353
Kitaigorodskii SA, Donelan MA (1984) Wind-wave effects on gas transfer. In: Brutsaert W, Jirka GH (eds) Gas transfer at water surfaces, Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 147–170
Liss SP, Merlivat L (1986) Air–sea gas exchange rates: introduction and synthesis. In: Buat-Menard P (ed) The role of air–sea exchange in geochemical cycling. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 113–127
Monahan EC, Spillane MC (1984) The role of oceanic whitecap in air–sea gas exchange. In: Brutsaert W, Jirka GH (eds) Gas transfer at water surfaces. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 495–503
Ocampo-Torres FJ, Donelan MA, Merzi N, Jia F (1994) Laboratory measurements of mass transfer of carbon dioxide and water vapour for smooth and rough flow conditions. Tellus 46B(1):16–32
Takahashi T, Sutherland SC, Wanninkhof R, Sweeney C, Feely RA, Chipman DW, Hales B, Friederich G, Chavez F, Watson A, Bakker DCE, Schuster U, Metzl N, Yoshikawa-Inoue H, Ishii M, Midorikawa T, Nojiri Y, Sabine C, Olafsson J, Arnarson ThS, Tilbrook B, Johannessen T, Olsen A, Richard Bellerby A, Körtzinger T, Steinhoff M, de Hoppema HJW, Baar CS, Wong Bruno Delille, Bates NR (2009) Climatological mean and decadal changes in surface ocean pCO2 and net sea-air CO2 flux over the global oceans. Deep Sea Res II 56:554–577
Tans PP, Fung IY, Takahashi T (1990) Observational constrains on the global atmospheric CO2 budget. Science 247:1431–1438
Toba Y, Koga M (1986) A parameter describing overall conditions of wave breaking, whitecapping, sea-spray production and wind stress. In: Monahan EC, MacNiocaill G (eds) Oceanic whitecaps. Publishing, Dordrecht, pp 37–47
Wanninkhof RH (1992) Relationship between gas exchange and wind speed over the ocean. J Geophys Res 97(c5):7373–7381
Wanninkhof RH, McGillis WR (1999) A cubic relationship between air–sea CO2 exchange and wind speed. Geophys Res Lett 26:1889–1892
Weiss RF (1974) Carbon dioxide in water and seawater: the solubility of a nonideal gas. Mar Chem 2:203–215
Weiss RF, Price BA (1980) Nitrous oxide solubility in water and seawater. Mar Chem 8:347
Woolf DK (2005) Parametrization of gas transfer velocities and sea-state-dependent wave breaking. Tellus 57B:87–94
Wu J (1988) Wind-stress coefficients at light winds. J Atmos Oceanic Technol 5:885–888
Zhao D, Toba Y (2001) Dependence of whitecap coverage on wind and wind-wave properties. J Oceanogr 57:603–616
Zhao D, Toba Y, Suzuki Y, Komori S (2003) Effect of wind waves on air–sea gas exchange: proposal of an overall CO2 transfer velocity formula as a function of breaking-wave parameter. Tellus 55B:478–487
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Suzuki, N., Donelan, M.A., Komori, S. et al. Estimation of the global air–sea CO2 gas flux considering wave breaking. J Oceanogr 71, 199–204 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10872-015-0271-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10872-015-0271-y