Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Does intrinsic motivation strengthen physical activity habit? Modeling relationships between self-determination, past behaviour, and habit strength

  • Published:
Journal of Behavioral Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Habit formation is thought to aid maintenance of physical activity, but little research is available into determinants of habit strength aside from repeated performance. Previous work has shown that intrinsically motivated physical activity, underpinned by inherent satisfaction derived from activity, is more likely to be sustained. We explored whether this might reflect a tendency for self-determined activity to become more strongly habitual. A sample of 192 adults aged 18–30 completed measures of motivational regulation, intention, behaviour, and habit strength. Results showed that self-determined regulation interacted with past behaviour in predicting habit strength: prior action was more predictive of habit strength among more autonomously motivated participants. There was an unexpected direct effect of self-determined regulation on habit strength, independently of past behaviour. Findings offer possible directions for future habit formation work.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Within Self-Determination Theory, the term ‘regulation’ refers to regulation of behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This assumes that motivation directs behaviour, and so conflicts with the habit perspective, which posits that behaviours may proceed impulsively, in the absence of motivation (Wood & Neal, 2007). Hence, we use the term ‘regulation’ to pertain to the regulation of motivation to engage in behaviour, rather than of behaviour itself.

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armitage, C. J. (2005). Can the theory of planned behavior predict the maintenance of physical activity? Health Psychology, 24, 235–245. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.3.235

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (pp. 1–40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, F., Gillison, F., & Standage, M. (2010). A theoretical investigation of the development of physical activity habits in retirement. British Journal of Health Psychology, 15, 663–679. doi:10.1348/135910709X479096

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biddle, S., Soos, I., & Chatzisarantis, N. (1999). Predicting physical activity intentions using goal perspectives and self-determination theory approaches. European Psychologist, 4, 83–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., Biddle, S. J. H., & Meek, G. A. (1997). A self-determination theory approach to the study of intentions and the intention-behaviour relationship in children’s physical activity. British Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 343–360. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.1997.tb00548.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Hagger, M. S. (2007). Mindfulness and the intention- behavior relationship within the theory of planned behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 663–676. doi:10.1177/0146167206297401

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., Hagger, M. S., Biddle, S. J. H., & Karageorghis, C. (2002). The cognitive processes by which perceived locus of causality predicts participation in physical activity. Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 685–699. doi:10.1177/1359105302007006872

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhury, M., & Esliger, D. (2009). Accelerometry in adults. In R. Craig, J. Mindell, & V. Hirani (Eds.), Health survey for England 2008. Volume 1: Physical activity and fitness (pp. 59–88). Leeds: The NHS Information Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daley, A. J., & Duda, J. L. (2006). Self-determination, stage of readiness to change for exercise, and frequency of physical activity in young people. European Journal of Sport Science, 6, 231–243. doi:10.1080/17461390601012637

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daw, N. D., Niv, Y., & Dayan, P. (2005). Uncertainty based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1704–1711. doi:10.1038/nn1560

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruijn, G. J., & Rhodes, R. E. (2011). Exploring exercise behavior, intention and habit strength relationships. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 21, 482–491. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01064.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Wit, S., & Dickinson, A. (2009). Associative theories of goal-directed behaviour: A case for animal-human translational models. Psychological Research, 73, 463–476. doi:10.1007/s00426-009-0230-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Department of Health, UK. (2011). Start active, stay active: A report on physical activity for health from the four home countries’ Chief Medical Officers. London: Department of Health. http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/documents/digitalasset/dh_128210.pdf. Accessed 25 June 2012.

  • Duncan, L. R., Hall, C. R., Wilson, P. M., & Jenny, O. (2010). Exercise motivation: A cross-sectional analysis examining its relationships with frequency, intensity, and duration of exercise. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 7, 7. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-7-7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2006). A test of self-determination theory in the exercise domain. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 2240–2265. doi:10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00102.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, B. (2009a). Modelling motivation and habit in stable travel mode contexts. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 12, 68–76. doi:10.1016/j.trf.2008.08.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, B. (2009b). Incentivised snowballing. The Psychologist, 22, 768–769.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, B. (2012). Habit as automaticity, not frequency. European Health Psychologist, 14, 32–36. Retrieved June 7, 2012 from http://www.ehps.net/ehp/issues/2012/v14iss2_June2012/14_2_Gardner.pdf

  • Gardner, B., & Abraham, C. (2009). What’s in a ‘habit’? A conceptual analysis and test of an automaticity-specific index. BPS social psychology section conference, Sheffield, UK, 15th September.

  • Gardner, B., de Bruijn, G. J., & Lally, P. (2011). A systematic review and meta-analysis of applications of the self-report habit index to nutrition and physical activity behaviours. Annals of Behavioural Medicine, 42, 174–187. doi:10.1007/s12160-011-9282-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Georgiadis, M. M., Biddle, S. J. H., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2001). The mediating role of self-determination in the relationship between goal orientations and physical self-worth in Greek exercisers. European Journal of Sport Science, 1, 1–9. doi:10.1080/17461390100071502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gionet, N. J., & Godin, G. (1989). Self-reported exercise behavior of employees: A validity study. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 31, 969–973.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Godin, G., & Shephard, R. J. (1985). A simple method to assess exercise behavior in the community. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10, 141–146.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagger, M., & Chatzisarantis, N. (2008). Self-determination theory and the psychology of exercise. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1, 79–103. doi:10.1080/17509840701827437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haskell, W. L., I-Min, L., Pate, R. R., Powell, K. E., Blair, S. N., Franklin, B. A., et al. (2007). Physical activity and public health: Updated recommendation for adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1423–1434. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.185649

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Judah, G., Gardner, B., & Aunger, R. (2012). Forming a flossing habit: Modelling the psychological determinants of habit formation. (Manuscript submitted for publication).

  • Lally, P. & Gardner, B. (2011). Promoting habit formation. Health Psychology Review. doi:10.1080/17437199.2011.603640

  • Lally, P., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Potts, H. W. W., & Wardle, J. (2010). How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 998–1009. doi:10.1002/ejsp.674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marcus, B. H., Williams, D. M., Dubbert, P. M., Sallis, J. F., King, A. C., Yancey, A. K. F. B. A., et al. (2006). Physical activity intervention studies: What we know and what we need to know: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Subcommittee on Physical Activity); Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; and the Interdisciplinary Working Group on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research. Circulation, 114, 2739–2752. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.179683

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markland, D., & Ingledew, D. K. (2007). The relationships between body mass and body image and relative autonomy for exercise among adolescent males and females. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 836–853. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.11.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markland, D., & Tobin, V. (2004). A modification to the behavioural regulation in exercise questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 26, 191–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moors, A., & de Houwer, J. (2006). Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 297–326. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.297

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orbell, S., & Verplanken, B. (2010). The automatic component of habit in health behavior: Habit as cue-contingent automaticity. Health Psychology, 29, 374–383. doi:10.1037/a0019596

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ouellette, J. A., & Wood, W. (1998). Habit and intention in everyday life: The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 54–74. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.1.54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R., de Bruijn, G. J., & Matheson, D. H. (2010). Habit in the physical activity domain: Integration with intention temporal stability and action control. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32, 84–98.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R., & Pfaeffli, L. (2010). Mediators of physical activity behaviour change among adult non-clinical populations: A review update. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 7, 37. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-7-37

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothman, A. J. (2000). Toward a theory-based analysis of behavioral maintenance. Health Psychology, 19, 64–69. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.19.Suppl1.64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rothman, A. J., Sheeran, P., & Wood, W. (2009). Reflective and automatic processes in the initiation and maintenance of dietary change. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 38, S4–S17. doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9118-3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749–761. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.749

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Frederick, C. M., Lepes, D., Rubio, N., & Sheldon, K. M. (1997). Intrinsic motivation and exercise adherence. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 28, 335–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva, M. N., Markland, D., Carraça, E. V., Vieira, P., Coutinho, S. R., Minderico, C. S., et al. (2011). Exercise autonomous motivation predicts 3-yr weight loss in women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43, 728–737. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181f3818f

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sniehotta, F. F., & Presseau, J. (2012). The habitual use of the self-report habit index. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 43, 139–140. doi:10.1007/s12160-011-9305-x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Standage, M., Sebire, S. J., & Loney, T. (2008). Does exercise motivation predict engagement in objectively assessed bouts of moderate-intensity exercise? A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30, 337–352.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004). Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 220–247. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., & Ntoumanis, N. (2006). The role of self-determined motivation in the understanding of exercise-related behaviours, cognitions and physical self-evaluations. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 393–404. doi:10.1080/02640410500131670

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Troiano, R. P., Berrigan, D., Dodd, K. W., Masse, L. C., Tilert, T., & McDowell, M. (2008). Physical activity in the United States measured by accelerometer. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40, 181–188. doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e31815a51b3

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verplanken, B., & Aarts, H. (1999). Habit, attitude, and planned behaviour: Is habit an empty construct or an interesting case of goal-directed automaticity? European Review of Social Psychology, 10, 101–134. doi:10.1080/14792779943000035

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verplanken, B., & Orbell, S. (2003). Reflections on past behavior: A self-report index of habit strength. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 1313–1330. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb01951.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warburton, D. E. R., Nicol, C. W., & Bredin, S. S. D. (2006). Health benefits of physical activity: The evidence. CMAJ, 174, 801–809. doi:10.1503/cmaj.051351

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, N. (2007). Misleading tests of health behavior theories. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33, 1–10. doi:10.1207/s15324796abm3301_1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, P. M., Rodgers, W. M., Loitz, C. C., & Scime, G. (2006). “It’s who I am… really!” The importance of integrated regulation in exercise contexts. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 11, 79–104. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9861.2006.tb00021.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, W., & Neal, D. T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface. Psychological Review, 114, 843–863. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.843

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work received no external funding. We thank Danielle House for assistance with data collection.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Health Behaviour Research Centre, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK

    Benjamin Gardner & Phillippa Lally

Authors
  1. Benjamin Gardner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Phillippa Lally
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Benjamin Gardner.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gardner, B., Lally, P. Does intrinsic motivation strengthen physical activity habit? Modeling relationships between self-determination, past behaviour, and habit strength. J Behav Med 36, 488–497 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-012-9442-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-012-9442-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation