Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale: Establishing Invariance Between Gender Across the Lifespan in a Large Community Based Study

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Objective The current study sought to examine the measurement invariance of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) between gender across the lifespan. Methods Data was drawn from three cohorts (aged 28–32, 48–52 and 68–72 years), who had participated in the PATH study from Canberra, Australia. Results Whilst some gender and age differences on item means and variances were reported, measurement invariance of a single CD-RISC factor between gender across the lifespan was mostly supported. Discussion Overall, a single CD-RISC factor was found to be invariant across the lifespan and between gender. Consequently, within an Australian community setting, the CD-RISC can generally be utilised across age and gender.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Afifi, T. O., & Macmillan, H. L. (2011). Resilience following child maltreatment: a review of protective factors. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(5), 266–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahern, N. R., Kiehl, E. M., Sole, M. L., & Byers, J. (2006). A review of instruments measuring resilience. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 29(2), 103–125. doi:10.1080/01460860600677643.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anstey, K. J., Christensen, H., Butterworth, P., Eastel, S., Rodgers, B., & Cherbuin, N. (2012). Cohort profile: the path through life project. International Journal of Epidemiology, 1–10, doi:10.1093/ije/dyr025.

  • Bontempo, D. E., Hofer, S. M., & Lawrence, F. (2007). Assessing factorial invariance in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Handbook of methods in positive psychology, 153–175.

  • Burns, R. A., & Anstey, K. J. (2010). The Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC): testing the invariance of a uni-dimensional resilience measure that is independent of positive and negative affect. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(5), 527–531. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.026.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, R. A., Anstey, K. J., & Windsor, T. D. (2011). Subjective well-being mediates the effects of resilience and mastery on depression and anxiety in a large community sample of young and middle-aged adults. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 240–248. doi:10.3109/00048674.2010.529604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell-Sills, L., & Stein, M. B. (2007). Psychometric analysis and refinement of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC): validation of a 10-item measure of resilience. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 1019–1028. doi:10.1002/jts.20271.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell-Sills, L., Cohan, S. L., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Relationship of resilience to personality, coping, and psychiatric symptoms in young adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 585–599. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.05.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 233–255. doi:10.1207/s15328007sem0902_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connor, K. M. (2006). Assessment of resilience in the aftermath of trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(2), 46–49.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82. doi:10.1002/da.10113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diehl, M., & Hay, E. L. (2010). Risk and resilience factors in coping with daily stress in adulthood: the role of age, self-concept incoherence, and personal control. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1132–1146. doi:10.1037/a0019937.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everall, R. D., Altrows, K. J., & Paulson, B. L. (2006). Creating a future: a study of resilience in suicidal female adolescents. Journal of Counseling & Development, 84(4), 461–470. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2006.tb00430.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Martinussen, M. (2003). A new rating scale for adult resilience: what are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 12(2), 65–76. doi:10.1002/mpr.143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friborg, O., Barlaug, D., Martinussen, M., Rosenvinge, J. H., & Hjemdal, O. (2005). Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 14(1), 29–42. doi:10.1002/mpr.15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., Martinussen, M., Aslaksen, P. M., & Flaten, M. A. (2006). Resilience as a moderator of pain and stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61(2), 213–219. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.12.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gucciardi, D. F., Jackson, B., Coulter, T. J., & Mallett, C. J. (2011). The Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC): dimensionality and age-related measurement invariance with Australian cricketers. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(4), 423–433. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.02.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hjemdal, O., Friborg, O., Stiles, T. C., Martinussen, M., & Rosenvinge, J. H. (2006). A new scale for adolescent resilience: grasping the central protective resources behind healthy development. Measurement & Evaluation in Counseling & Development (American Counseling Association), 39(2), 84–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holbert, R. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2002). Structural equation modeling in the communication sciences, 1995–2000. Human Communication Research, 28(4), 531–551. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00822.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, J., Gooding, P. A., Wood, A. M., Taylor, P. J., Pratt, D., & Tarrier, N. (2010). Resilience to suicidal ideation in psychosis: positive self-appraisals buffer the impact of hopelessness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(9), 883–889. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.05.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jowkar, B., Friborg, O., & Hjemdal, O. (2010). Cross-cultural validation of the resilience scale for adults (RSA) in Iran. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51(5), 418–425. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00794.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamond, A. J., Depp, C. A., Allison, M., Langer, R., Reichstadt, J., Moore, D. J., et al. (2008). Measurement and predictors of resilience among community-dwelling older women. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43, 148–154. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.03.007.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, D. W. Y., Fairweather-Schmidt, A. K., Roberts, R. M., Burns, R. A., & Anstey, K. J. (2014). Does resilience predict suicidality? A lifespan analysis. Archives of Suicide Research.

  • Lundman, B., Strandberg, G., Eisemann, M., Gustafson, Y., & Brulin, C. (2007). Psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the resilience scale. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 21(2), 229–237. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00461.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12(4), 857–885. doi:10.1017/S0954579400004156.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543–562. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00164.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1(2), 130–149. doi:10.1037/1082-989x.1.2.130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S. (2007). Resilience in developing systems: progress and promise as the fourth wave rises. Development and Psychopathology, 19(3), 921–930. doi:10.1017/s0954579407000442.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Obradović, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094(1), 13–27. doi:10.1196/annals.1376.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425–444. doi:10.1017/S0954579400005812.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milfont, T. L., & Fischer, R. (2010). Testing measurement invariance across groups: applications in cross-cultural research. International Journal of Psychological Research, 3(1), 111–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, E. D. (2003). Reconceptualising the role of resiliency in coping and therapy. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 8(4), 239–246. doi:10.1080/15325020305881.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rew, L., Taylor-Seehafer, M., Thomas, N. Y., & Yockey, R. D. (2001). Correlates of resilience in homeless adolescents. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33(1), 33–40. doi:10.1111/j.1547-5069.2001.00033.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, A., Sarchiapone, M., & Carli, V. (2007). Low resilience in suicide attempters. Archives of Suicide Research, 11(3), 265–269. doi:10.1080/13811110701403916.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719–727. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. doi:10.1080/10705500802222972.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. W., Tooley, E. M., Christopher, P. J., & Kay, V. S. (2010). Resilience as the ability to bounce back from stress: a neglected personal resource? Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(3), 166–176. doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.482186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, D. E. (2011). Toward understanding resilient outcomes. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(5), 256–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Zhang, Q., van Kammen, W., & Maguin, E. (1993). The double edge of protective and risk factors for delinquency: Interrelations and developmental patterns. Development and Psychopathology, 683–701, doi:10.1017/S0954579400006234.

  • Vaishnavi, S., Connor, K., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2007). An abbreviated version of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC), the CD-RISC2: psychometric properties and applications in psychopharmacological trials. Psychiatry Research, 152, 293–297. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2007.01.006.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4–70. doi:10.1177/109442810031002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagnild, G., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the resilience scale. Journal of Nursing Measures, 1, 165–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. New York: Cornell University:Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E. (1993). Risk, resilience, and recovery: perspectives from the Kauai longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 5(04), 503–515. doi:10.1017/S095457940000612X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E. (2005). Resilience and recovery: findings from the Kauai longitudinal study. Focal Point: Research, Policy, and Practice in Children’s Mental Health: Resilience and Recovery, 19(1), 11–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1979). A report from the Kauai longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 18(2), 292–306. doi:10.1016/S0002-7138(09)61044-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Windle, G. (2010). What is resilience? A review and concept analysis. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology, 21(02), 152–169. doi:10.1017/S0959259810000420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Windle, G., Bennett, K. M., & Noyes, J. (2011). A methodological review of resilience measurement scales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9, doi:10.1186/1477-7525-9-8.

  • Yu, X. N., Lau, J. T. F., Mak, W. W. S., Zhang, J., & Lui, W. W. S. (2011). Factor structure and psychometric properties of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale among Chinese adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52(2), 218–224. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.05.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Andrew Mackinnon, Tony Jorm, Helen Christensen, Kaarin Anstey, Nicolas Cherubin, Peter Butterworth, Simon Easteal, Trish Jacomb, Karen Maxwell and the PATH interviewers. We wish to also thank Tim Windsor for his assistance.

Conflict of Interest

Danica W. Y. Liu declares that there is no conflict of interest, A. Kate Fairweather-Schmidt declares that there is no conflict of interest, Richard A. Burns declares that there is no conflict of interest, Rachel M. Roberts declares that there is no conflict of interest.

Experiment Participants

The current study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee at the University of Adelaide (Code Number 11/69); and, the Centre for Mental Health Research at the Australian National University (Protocol Number 2006/314).

Funding

The PATH Through Life Project has received funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council (Grants 973302, 179805, 157125). Burns is funded from the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Population Ageing Research (project # CE110001029).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia

    Danica W. Y. Liu & Rachel M. Roberts

  2. School of Psychology, Flinders University, GPO 2100, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia

    A. Kate Fairweather-Schmidt

  3. Centre for Research on Ageing, Health and Wellbeing, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200, Australia

    Richard A. Burns

Authors
  1. Danica W. Y. Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. Kate Fairweather-Schmidt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Richard A. Burns
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rachel M. Roberts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Danica W. Y. Liu.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Liu, D.W.Y., Fairweather-Schmidt, A.K., Burns, R.A. et al. The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale: Establishing Invariance Between Gender Across the Lifespan in a Large Community Based Study. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 37, 340–348 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9452-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9452-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation