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Interfacial heating during low-pressure cold-gas dynamic spraying of aluminum coatings

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Abstract

Low-pressure cold spraying was used to deposit aluminum particles (~25 μm diameter) on to low carbon steel, and the particle–particle interactions of the aluminum coating were analyzed. A simplified energy conservation model was developed to estimate the temperature at the interface of the deformed particle during deposition of the powder. The Johnson–Cook model was used to calculate the particle flow stress, which was used to estimate the total energy dissipated via plastic deformation during impact and spreading of the particle. Microstructural analysis was conducted to show that plastic deformation occurred mainly at the interfacial regions of the deformed particles. By coupling microstructural observations of the cold-sprayed particles with the energy conservation model, it was found that the interface between the aluminum particles contained recrystallized ultra-fine and nanocrystalline grain structures that were likely formed at temperatures above 260 °C, but the majority of particles likely achieved interfacial temperatures which were lower than the melting point of aluminum (660 °C). This suggests that local melting is not likely to dominate the inter-particle bonding mechanism, and the resulting interfacial regions contain ultra-fine grain structures, which significantly contribute to the coating hardness.

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Abbreviations

A :

Yield stress (MPa)

A p :

Projected area normal to gas flow (m2)

A s :

Surface area of particle (m2)

B :

Johnson–Cook strain hardening constant (Pa)

Bi :

Biot number

c p :

Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1)

C :

Johnson–Cook strain rate constant

C D :

Drag coefficient

d p :

Particle diameter (m)

d splat :

Splat diameter, after spreading (m)

D nozzle :

Nozzle diameter (m)

E k :

Kinetic energy (J)

E p :

Plastic deformation energy (J)

h :

Heat transfer coefficient (W m−2 K−1)

k :

Thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1)

k g :

Thermal conductivity of free stream carrier gas (W m−1 K−1)

L x :

Distance traveled by particle (m)

m p :

Particle mass (kg)

M :

Mach number

n :

Hardening exponent

Nu :

Nusselt number, Nu = hd p/k g

P g :

Absolute gas pressure (Pa)

Pr :

Prandtl number, Pr = c p μ/k g

r :

Recovery factor

R :

Gas constant (kJ kg−1 K−1)

\( Re_{{d_{\text{p}} }} \) :

Reynolds number based on particle diameter, \( Re_{{d_{\text{p}} }} = \rho_{\text{g}} (V_{\text{g}} - V_{\text{p}} )d_{\text{p}} /\mu_{\text{g}} \)

t c :

Contact time (s)

t i :

Time at iteration i

t x :

Time traveled by particle (s)

T aw :

Adiabatic-wall temperature (K)

T g :

Free stream carrier gas temperature (K)

T i :

Temperature at increment i (K)

T initial :

Initial particle temperature prior to impact (K)

T interface :

Particle–substrate interface temperature (°C)

T bulk :

Temperature in the interior of the particle during deformation (°C)

T m :

Melting temperature (K)

T o :

Ambient temperature (K)

T sub :

Temperature of substrate (K)

V g :

Carrier gas velocity (m/s)

V i :

Particle velocity at increment i

V p :

Particle velocity (m/s)

X :

Nozzle length (m)

α:

Thermal diffusivity (m2s−1)

γ:

Specific heat ratio

δ:

Lamellae thickness (m)

εf :

Final von Mises equivalent strain

εi :

Equivalent strain at increment i

ε i *:

Strain rate at increment i

θ:

Non-dimensional interface temperature

μg :

Viscosity of free stream carrier gas (kg m−1 s−1)

μs :

Viscosity of gas at particle surface (kg m−1 s−1)

μo :

Reference viscosity of gas (kg m−1 s−1)

ξ:

Non-dimensional particle diameter

ρ:

Particle/splat density (kg m−3)

ρg :

Gas density (kg m−3)

σ:

Von Mises equivalent flow stress (Pa)

Ω:

Particle volume (m3)

Ωsplat :

Volume of a particle after impact and deformation on the substrate (m3)

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Acknowledgements

Funding for this project was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the Government of Alberta Small Equipment Grants Program (SEGP), and the Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI). The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Eric Irissou with DPV-2000 measurements.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2V4, Canada

    M. P. Dewar & A. P. Gerlich

  2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2G8, Canada

    A. G. McDonald

Authors
  1. M. P. Dewar
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  2. A. G. McDonald
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  3. A. P. Gerlich
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Correspondence to A. G. McDonald.

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Dewar, M.P., McDonald, A.G. & Gerlich, A.P. Interfacial heating during low-pressure cold-gas dynamic spraying of aluminum coatings. J Mater Sci 47, 184–198 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-011-5786-z

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