Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Motherhood Wage Penalty in Spain

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Family and Economic Issues Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We present evidence for the motherhood wage penalty in Spain as a representative Southern European Mediterranean country. We used the European Community Household Panel (ECHP 1994–2001) to estimate, from both pool and fixed-effects methods, a wage equation in terms of observed variables and other non-observed individual characteristics. The empirical results confirm that there is clear evidence of a wage penalty for Spanish working-women with children. Specifically, the fact that there was a birth in the family during the current year means that the woman lost 9% of her wage. We also found that, having one child living in the household means a significant loss in wages of 6%, having two children, almost a 14% loss, and having three or more children, in a more than 15% loss.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Other penalties derived from motherhood from a family perspective include the clear trade-off between work and childcare (Abroms and Goldscheider 2002; Baydar et al. 2007; Cohen and Bianchi 1999; Craig 2007; Perry-Jenkins et al. 2000) and limitations to managerial and academic career paths (Comer and Stites-Doe 2006; Edwards 2005; Elliot 2003; England 1982; Finkel and Olswang 1996; Golden 2008; Polacheck 1981; Wallace 2008), although governments and social agencies try to minimize the effects of all such penalties (Baum 2003; Berger et al. 2005; Berger and Waldfogel 2004; Livermone and Powers 2006; Radey 2008; Tomohara and Lee 2007).

  2. Sigle-Rushton and Waldfogel (2007a, 2007b) analyze lifecycle earnings, according to which the largest differences in earnings are observed in countries like The Netherlands and Germany, and the smallest in Scandinavia, with the US and the United Kingdom situated in an intermediate position. The explanation for a different ordering in short-run wages, compared to lifetime earnings, relies on both the longer periods out-of-work by mothers, and on the higher protection that non-employed women receive in the Central European countries, compared to those living in Anglo-American countries.

  3. Given the fact that the existence of children at home can affect the number of hours a woman works, we prefer to present the variable that collects pay data in terms of wage per hour rather than annual or monthly earnings.

  4. With respect to these variables of having children, the number of children at home younger than 14 was also considered, although the results are not presented given the fact that they did not substantially change with respect to those obtained using the two initial indicators. In addition, we introduced the two original measures simultaneously in order to control for the influence of having children in the period under study. The combined effect of both measures is similar to that obtained in Tables 3 and 4.

References

  • Abroms, L., & Goldscheider, F. (2002). More work for mother: How spouses, cohabiting partners, and relatives affect the hours mothers work. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 23, 147–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Albrecht, J. W., Edin, P.-A., Sundstrom, M., & Broman, S. B. (1999). Career interruptions and subsequent earnings: A re-examination using Swedish data. Journal of Human Resources, 34, 294–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amuedo-Dorantes, C., & Kimmel, J. (2005). The motherhood wage gap for women in the United States: The importance of college and fertility delay. Review of Economics of the Household, 3, 17–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, D. J., Binder, M., & Krause, K. (2002). The motherhood wage penalty: Which mothers pay it and why. American Economic Review, 92, 354–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, D. J., Binder, M., & Krause, K. (2003). The motherhood wage penalty revisited: Experience, heterogeneity, work effort and work-schedule flexibility. Industrial and Labour Relations Review, 56, 73–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arts, W., & Gelissen, J. (2002). Three worlds of welfare capitalism or more? A state-of-the-art report. Journal of European Social Policy, 12, 137–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baum, C. L. (2003). The effects of maternity leave legislation on mothers’ labor supply after childbirth. Southern Economic Journal, 69, 772–799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baydar, N., Joesch, J. M., Kieckhefer, G., Kim, H., & Greek, A. (2007). Employment behaviors of mothers who have a child with asthma. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 28, 337–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. (1985). Human capital effort, and the sexual division of labour. Journal of Labour Economics, 3, S33–S58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, G. (1991). A treatise on the family. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, L. M., Hill, J., & Waldfogel, J. (2005). Maternity leave, early maternal employment and child health and development in the U. S. The Economic Journal, 115, F29–F47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, L. M., & Waldfogel, J. (2004). Maternity leave and the employment of new mothers in the United States. Journal of Population Economics, 17, 331–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66, 204–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, P., & Bianchi, S. (1999). Marriage, children and women’s employment: What do we know? Monthly Labor Review, 122, 22–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Comer, D. R., & Stites-Doe, S. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of faculty women’s academic-parental role balancing. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 27, 495–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craig, L. (2007). How employed mothers in Australia find time for both market work and childcare. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 28, 69–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Datta-Gupta, N., & Smith, N. (2002). Children and career interruptions: The family gap in Denmark. Economica, 69, 609–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de la Rica, S., Dolado, J. J., & Llorens, V. (2005). Ceiling and floors: Gender wage gaps by education in Spain (IZA Discussion Papers 1483). Bonn, Germany: Institute for the Study of Labor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dustmann, C., & Rochina-Barrachina, M. E. (2007). Selection correction in panel data models: An application to the estimation of females’ wage equations. Econometrics Journal, 10, 263–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, M. E. (2005). Occupational structure and the employment of American mothers of young children. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 26, 31–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, M. (2003). Work and family role strain among university employees. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 23, 157–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • England, P. (1982). The failure of human capital theory to explain occupational sex segregation. Journal of Human Resources, 17, 358–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). The three worlds of welfare capitalism. New York: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkel, S. K., & Olswang, S. G. (1996). Child rearing as a career impediment to women assistant professors. Review of Higher Education, 17, 123–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firestone, J. M., Harris, R. J., & Lambert, L. C. (1999). Gender role ideology and the gender base differences in earnings. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 20, 191–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • García, I., Molina, J. A., & Montuenga, V. (in press). Intra-family distribution of paid-work time. Applied Economics.

  • García, I., Molina, J. A., & Navarro, M. (2007). How satisfied are spouses with their leisure time? Evidence from Europe. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 28, 546–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golden, L. (2008). Limited access: Disparities in flexible work schedules and work-at-home. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 29, 86–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harkness, S., & Waldfogel, J. (2003). The family gap in pay: Evidence from seven industrialized countries. Research in Labor Economics, 22, 369–414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, P., Rosholm, M., & Verner, M. (2002). A comparison of different estimators for panel data sample selection models (WP 2002–01). Aarhus, Denmark: University of Aarhus, Department of Economics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joshi, H., Paci, P., & Waldfogel, J. (1999). The wages of motherhood: Better or worse? Cambridge Journal of Economics, 23, 543–564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katrougalos, G. (1996). The South European welfare model: The Greek welfare state, in search of an identity. Journal of the European Social Policy, 6(1), 39–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korenman, S., & Neumark, D. (1992). Marriage, motherhood, and wages. Journal of Human Resources, 27, 233–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korpi, W. (2000). Faces of inequality: Gender, class and patterns of inequalities in different types of welfare state. Social Politics, 7, 127–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunze, A., & Ejrnaes, M. (2004). Wage dips and drops around first birth (IZA Discussion Papers 1011). Bonn, Germany: Institute for the Study of Labor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kyriazidou, E. (1997). Estimation of a panel data sample selection model. Econometrica, 65, 1335–1364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Livermore, M. M., & Powers, R. S. (2006). Employment of unwed mothers: The role of government and social support. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 27, 479–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López, A., García, J., & Hernández, P. (2001). How wide is the gap? An investigation of gender wage differences using quantile regression. Empirical Economics, 26, 149–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, S., & Rose, E. (2000). Parenthood and the earnings of married men and women. Labour Economics, 7, 689–710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mincer, J. (1974). Schooling, experience and earnings. New York: National Bureau Economic Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mincer, J., & Polachek, S. (1974). Family investments in human capital: Earnings of women. Journal of Political Economy, 82, 576–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, H. S., Simonsen, M., & Verner, M. (2004). Does the gap in family-friendly policies drive the family gap? Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 106, 721–744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oaxaca, R., & Ransom, M. (1994). On discrimination and the decomposition of wage differentials. Journal of Econometrics, 61, 5–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry-Jenkins, M., Repetti, R., & Crouter, A. (2000). Work and family in the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 981–998.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phipps, S., Burton, P., & Latheridge, L. (2001). In and out of the labour market: Long-term income consequences of child-related interruptions to women’s paid work. Canadian Journal of Economics, 34, 411–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polacheck, S. (1981). Occupational self-selection: A human capital approach to sex differences in occupational structure. Review of Economics and Statistics, 63, 60–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radey, M. (2008). The influence of social supports on employment for Hispanic, Black and White unmarried mothers. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 29, 445–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosholm, M., & Smith, N. (1996). The Danish gender wage gap in the 1980s: A panel data study. Oxford Economic Papers, 48, 254–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruhm, C. (1998). The economic consequences of parental leave mandates: Lessons from Europe. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 113, 285–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigle-Rushton, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2007a). The incomes of families with children: A cross-national comparison. Journal of the European Social Policy, 17(4), 299–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigle-Rushton, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2007b). Motherhood and women’s earnings in Anglo-American, Continental European, and Nordic countries. Feminist Economics, 13(2), 55–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swanberg, J. E. (2005). Job-family role strain among low-wage workers. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 26, 143–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Todd, E. (2001). Educational attainment and family gaps in women’s wages: Evidence from five industrialized countries. Luxembourg Income Study (WP 245). Syracuse, NY: University of Syracuse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomohara, A., & Lee, H. J. (2007). Did State Children’s Health Insurance Program affect married women’s labor supply? Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 28, 668–683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trifiletti, R. (1999). Southern European welfare regimes and the worsening position of women. Journal of European Social Policy, 9, 49–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Urban, J. A., & Olson, P. N. (2005). A comprehensive employment model for low-income mothers. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 26, 101–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • VandenHeuvel, A. (1997). Absence because of family responsibilities: An examination of explanatory factors. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 18, 273–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldfogel, J. (1995). The price of motherhood: Family status and women’s pay in a young British cohort. Oxford Economic Papers, 47, 584–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldfogel, J. (1997). The effects of children on women’s wages. American Sociological Review, 62, 209–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldfogel, J. (1998a). The family gap for young women in the United States and Britain: Can maternity leave make a difference? Journal of Labor Economics, 16, 505–545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldfogel, J. (1998b). Understanding the family gap in pay for women with children. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 12, 137–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, J. E. (2008). Parenthood and commitment to the legal profession: Are mothers less committed than fathers? Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 29, 478–495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wooldridge, J. (1995). Selection corrections for panel data models under conditional mean independence assumptions. Journal of Econometrics, 68, 115–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wooldridge, J. (2002). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This paper was partially written while José Alberto Molina was Visiting Fellow at the Department of Economics of the University of Warwick (UK), to which he would like to express his thanks for the hospitality and facilities provided. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Spanish Applied Economics Meeting-2006 (Jaen, Spain), as well as at the I Workshop on Economics of the Family-2006 (Zaragoza, Spain), with all the comments made by the participants, particularly those of Ian Walker, and those of anonymous referees, being highly appreciated. Finally, the authors would like to express their thanks for the financial support provided by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science and FEDER (Project SEJ2005-06522) and by the BBVA Foundation. The usual disclaimer applies.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Economic Analysis, University of Zaragoza, Gran Vía 2, 50005, Zaragoza, Spain

    José Alberto Molina & Víctor M. Montuenga

  2. IZA, Bonn, Germany

    José Alberto Molina

Authors
  1. José Alberto Molina
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Víctor M. Montuenga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to José Alberto Molina.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table 5.

Table 5 Complete estimations
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Molina, J.A., Montuenga, V.M. The Motherhood Wage Penalty in Spain. J Fam Econ Iss 30, 237–251 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-009-9153-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-009-9153-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation