Abstract
Early parenthood can be stressful. Many parenting interventions emphasize skills training, as opposed to improving the parent-child relationship. We investigated whether the Respectful Approach intervention, based on building the parent-child relationship through observation and respect, improves stress and confidence in parents of infants and toddlers. Using a quasi-experimental design, we compared changes in self-reported levels of stress and parenting competence between 15 parents who attended the Respectful Approach parent-child classes (once a week for six weeks), to a control group of 23 parents utilizing the ‘Parenting Sense of Competence Scale’, ‘Parental Stress Scale’ and ‘Depression Anxiety Stress Scales’. A focus group was held at the conclusion of the intervention to provide feedback about the classes. A significant Time × Group interaction was observed for both parent competence (p = 0.004) and parent stress (p = 0.010). Parents in the intervention group demonstrated a significant increase in parent competence (p = 0.001) with no significant change observed in the control group (p = 0.787). Parent stress significantly increased in the control group (p = 0.017) and marginally decreased in the intervention group (p = 0.134). Qualitative analysis revealed that the intervention parents felt they were calmer and better understood their children. These findings suggest that the Respectful Approach intervention may improve parental stress and parenting competence. Our results justify development of a randomized controlled trial to further quantify the effect of this approach.
Highlights
-
We examined an early relationship-based parenting intervention (Respectful Approach) for parents of children under the age of two.
-
Respectful Approach aims to improve parent stress and competence by helping parents view the child as a separate, competent being with their own thoughts and intentions, and to trust in the child’s abilities.
-
Parents of infants revealed they felt less stressed, while parents of toddlers felt more confident after participation in the intervention.
-
Further research into the use of the Respectful Approach as a potential population-based support system is warranted.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data are available at the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/6t7c4/).
References
Ansay, S. J., Perkins, D. F., & Nelson, J. (2004). Interpreting outcomes: using focus groups in evaluation research. Family Relations, 53(3), 310–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.0007.x.
Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10, 176–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.176.
Ateah, C. A. (2013). Prenatal parent education for first-time expectant parents: “Making it through labor is just the beginning…”. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 27, 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2011.06.019.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2018). Socio-economic indexes for areas (SEIFA) 2016. Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/.
Baker, B., & Yang, I. (2018). Social media as social support in pregnancy and the postpartum. Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, 17, 31–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2018.05.003.
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2005). Disorganized infant attachment and preventive interventions: a review and meta-analysis. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 191–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20046.
Barlow, J., Smailagic, N., Ferriter, M., Bennett, C., & Jones, H. (2010). Group-based parent-training programmes for improving emotional and behavioural adjustment in children from birth to three years old. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD003680. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003680.pub2.
Barlow, J., Smailagic, N., Huband, N., Roloff, V., & Bennett, C. (2014). Group‐based parent training programmes for improving parental psychosocial health. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 5, CD002020. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002020.pub4.
Bennett, C. T., Buchan, J. L., Letourneau, N., Shanker, S. G., Fenwick, A., Smith-Chant, B., & Gilmer, C. (2017). A realist synthesis of social connectivity interventions during transition to parenthood: the value of relationships. Applied Nursing Research, 34, 12–23. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0897189716303032.
Berry, J. O., & Jones, W. H. (1995). The Parental Stress Scale: Initial psychometric evidence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 12, 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407595123009.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Bunting, L. (2004). Parenting programmes: the best available evidence. Child Care in Practice, 10, 327–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/1357527042000285510.
Bussey, K., & Hill, D. (2017). Care as curriculum: Investigating teachers’ views on the learning in care. Early Child Development and Care, 187, 128–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1152963.
Buultjens, M., Murphy, G., Robinson, P., Milgrom, J., & Monfries, M. (2017). Women’s experiences of, and attitudes to, maternity education across the perinatal period in Victoria, Australia: a mixed-methods approach. Women and Birth, 30, 406–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2017.03.005.
Chahin, E. (2008). Caregiving with respect: important lessons from the Pikler institute. Exchange: The Early Childhood Leaders’ Magazine Since 1978, 30(5), 40–42. http://www.childcareexchange.com.
Cohen, N. J., Muir, E., Lojkasek, M., Muir, R., Parker, C. J., Barwick, M., & Brown, M. (1999). Watch, wait, and wonder: testing the effectiveness of a new approach to mother-infant psychotherapy. Infant Mental Health Journal, 20, 429–451. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0355(199924)20:43.0.CO;2-Q.
Coleman, P. K., & Karraker, K. H. (2003). Maternal self‐efficacy beliefs, competence in parenting, and toddlers’ behavior and developmental status. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 126–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.10048.
Cooper, M., Hedges, H., & Dixon, H. (2014). Weaving RIE with Te Whāriki: re-thinking family involvement in assessment of learning dispositions. Early Child Development and Care, 184, 733–748. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2013.818987.
Crncec, R., Barnett, B., & Matthey, S. (2008). Development of an instrument to assess perceived self-efficacy in the parents of infants. Research in Nursing and Health, 31, 442–453. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20271.
Crncec, R., Barnett, B., & Matthey, S. (2010). Review of scales of parenting confidence. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 18, 210–240. https://doi.org/10.1891/1061-3749.18.3.210.
Da Ros, D. A., & Wong, A. (1996). The art of being fully in the present with young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 23, 215–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02353339.
Don, B. P., Chong, A., Biehle, S. N., Gordon, A., & Mickelson, K. D. (2014). Anxiety across the transition to parenthood: change trajectories among low-risk parents. Anxiety, Stress, And Coping, 27, 633–649. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2014.903473.
Dunning, M. J., & Giallo, R. (2012). Fatigue, parenting stress, self-efficacy and satisfaction in mothers of infants and young children. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 30, 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2012.693910.
Enebrink, P., Danneman, M., Benvestito Mattsson, V., Ulfsdotter, M., Jalling, C., & Lindberg, L. (2015). ABC for parents: pilot study of a universal 4-session program shows increased parenting skills, self-efficacy and child well-being. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 1917–1931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9992-6.
French, N. (2011). Learning to wonder together: a group approach to work with parents and infants in a community setting. Infant Observation, 14, 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698036.2011.552638.
Gerber, M. (2002). Dear parent: caring for infants with respect (J. Weaver, Ed. Expanded ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE).
Gerber, M. (Ed.). (2013). The RIE manual: for parents and professionals (Expanded ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE).
Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E., & Chadwick, B. (2008). Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. British Dental Journal, 204, 291–295. https://doi.org/10.1038/bdj.2008.192.
Gilmer, C., Buchan, J. L., Letourneau, N., Bennett, C. T., Shanker, S. G., Fenwick, A., & Smith-Chant, B. (2016). Parent education interventions designed to support the transition to parenthood: a realist review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 59, 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2016.03.015.
Gilmore, L., & Cuskelly, M. (2009). Factor structure of the parenting sense of competence scale using a normative sample. Child Care, Health and Development, 35, 48–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2008.00867.x.
Harmeyer, E., Ispa, J. M., Palermo, F., & Carlo, G. (2016). Predicting self-regulation and vocabulary and academic skills at kindergarten entry: the roles of maternal parenting stress and mother-child closeness. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 37, 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.05.001.
Hayes, L., Matthews, J., Copley, A., & Welsh, D. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of a mother-infant or toddler parenting program: Demonstrating effectiveness in practice. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 33, 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsm085.
Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X29657.
Hiscock, H., Bayer, J., & Wake, M. (2005). Preventing toddler externalising behaviour problems: pilot evaluation of a universal parenting program. International Journal of Mental Health Promotion, 7, 54–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623730.2005.9721866.
Hoffman, K. T. (2006). Changing toddlers’ and preschoolers’ attachment classifications: the circle of security intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 1017–1026. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.1017.
Huber, A., McMahon, C., & Sweller, N. (2016). Improved parental emotional functioning after Circle of Security 20-week parent-child relationship intervention. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25, 2526–2540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0426-5.
Hudson, D. B., Elek, S. M., & Fleck, C. M. (2001). First-time mothers’ and fathers’ transition to parenthood: infant care self-efficacy, parenting satisfaction, and infant sex. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 24, 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/014608601300035580.
Johnston, C., & Mash, E. J. (1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18, 167–175. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp1802_8.
Jones, T. L., & Prinz, R. J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: a review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 341–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004.
King, K. L., Priddis, L. E., & Kane, R. T. (2015). Enhancing maternal sensitivity and emotional wellbeing through a preventative parent-child relationship intervention in a community setting. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 1582–1592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9962-z.
Kristensen, I. H., Simonsen, M., Trillingsgaard, T., Pontoppidan, M., & Kronborg, H. (2018). First-time mothers’ confidence mood and stress in the first months postpartum. A cohort study. Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, 17, 43–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2018.06.003.
Larzelere, R. E., Kuhn, B. R., & Johnson, B. (2004). The intervention selection bias: an underrecognized confound in intervention research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.2.289.
Leahy-Warren, P., & McCarthy, G. (2011). Maternal parental self-efficacy in the postpartum period. Midwifery, 27, 802–810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2010.07.008.
Lee, J. G (2016). What happened to the children? How to support the development of empathy in infants. Pasadena, CA: Pacific Oaks College.
Leigh, B., & Milgrom, J. (2008). Risk factors for antenatal depression, postnatal depression and parenting stress. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-8-24.
Lessenberry, B. M., & Rehfeldt, R. A. (2004). Evaluating stress levels of parents of children with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 70, 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290407000207.
Levi, D., Ibrahim, R., Malcolm, R., & MacBeth, A. (2019). Mellow Babies and Mellow Toddlers: effects on maternal mental health of a group-based parenting intervention for at-risk families with young children. Journal of Affective Disorders, 246, 820–827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.120.
Liyana Amin, N. A., Tam, W. W. S., & Shorey, S. (2018). Enhancing first-time parents’ self-efficacy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of universal parent education interventions’ efficacy. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 82, 149–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2018.03.021.
Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U.
McBride, H. (1998). Playing eye-to-eye [Watch, Wait & Wonder program]. Chatelaine, 71, 24.
Miller, R. L., Pallant, J. F., & Negri, L. M. (2006). Anxiety and stress in the postpartum: is there more to postnatal distress than depression? BMC Psychiatry, 6, 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-6-12.
Morsbach, S. K., & Prinz, R. J. (2006). Understanding and improving the validity of self-report of parenting. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 9, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-006-0001-5.
Muir, E. (1992). Watching, waiting, and wondering: applying psychoanalytic principals to mother-infant intervention. Infant Mental Health Journal, 13, 319–328. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0355(199224)13:43.0.CO;2-2.
Muir, E., Lojkasek, M., & Cohen, N. (1999). Observant parents: intervening through observation. Infant Observation, 3, 11–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698039908400851.
Ohan, J. L., Leung, D. W., & Johnston, C. (2000). The parenting sense of competence scale: evidence of a stable factor structure and validity. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 32, 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087122.
Panter-Brick, C., Burgess, A., Eggerman, M., McAllister, F., Pruett, K., & Leckman, J. F. (2014). Practitioner review: engaging fathers—recommendations for a game change in parenting interventions based on a systematic review of the global evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 1187–1212. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12280.
Parkitny, L., & McAuley, J. (2010). The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS). Journal of Physiotherapy, 56, 204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1836-9553(10)70030-8.
Perez-Blasco, J., Viguer, P., & Rodrigo, M. F. (2013). Effects of a mindfulness-based intervention on psychological distress, well-being, and maternal self-efficacy in breast-feeding mothers: results of a pilot study. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 16, 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-013-0337-z.
Petch, J., & Halford, W. K. (2008). Psycho-education to enhance couples’ transition to parenthood. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 1125–1137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.03.005.
Petrie, S., & Owen, S. (Eds.). (2005). Authentic relationships in group care for infants and toddlers—Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE) principles into practice. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip0422/2004019597.html.
Pikler, E. (1968). Some contributions to the study of the gross motor development of children. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 113, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1968.10533806.
Reichle, B., Backes, S., & Dette-Hagenmeyer, D. E. (2012). Positive parenting the preventive way: transforming research into practice with an intervention for new parents. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.629037.
Reynolds, D. (2003). Mindful parenting: a group approach to enhancing reflective capacity in parents and infants. Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 29, 357–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/00754170310001625413.
Rogers, H., & Matthews, J. (2004). The Parenting Sense of Competence Scale: investigation of the factor structure, reliability, and validity for an Australian sample. Australian Psychologist, 39, 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050060410001660380.
Rutherford, H. J. V., Goldberg, B., Luyten, P., Bridgett, D. J., & Mayes, L. C. (2013). Parental reflective functioning is associated with tolerance of infant distress but not general distress: evidence for a specific relationship using a simulated baby paradigm. Infant Behavior and Development, 36, 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2013.06.008.
Sanders, M. R., Baker, B., & Turner, K. M. T. (2012). A randomized controlled trial evaluating the efficacy of Triple P online with parents of children with early-onset conduct problems. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 675–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.07.004.
Sanders, M. R., Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Day, J. J. (2014). The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: a systematic review and meta-analysis of a multi-level system of parenting support. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 337–357. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735814000683.
Sher-Censor, E., Shulman, C., & Cohen, E. (2018). Associations among mothers’ representations of their relationship with their toddlers, maternal parenting stress, and toddlers’ internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Infant Behavior and Development, 50, 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.12.005.
Slade, A. (2005). Parental reflective functioning: an introduction. Attachment & Human Development, 7(3), 269–281.
Stewart-Brown, S. (2008). Improving parenting: the why and the how. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 93, 102.
Suskind, D. (1993). Parent ‘N’ me parent-infant guidance class. Massachusetts, USA: Fitchburg State College.
Sutton, C., Murray, L., & Glover, V. (2012). Support from the start: effective programmes from birth to two years. Journal of Children’s Services, 7, 18–28. https://doi.org/10.1108/17466661211213643.
Tardos, A. (2010). Introducing the Piklerian developmental approach: history and principles. The Signal: Newsletter of the World Association for Infant Mental Health, 18, 1–30. https://mafiadoc.com.
Tellegen, C. L., & Sanders, M. R. (2014). A randomized controlled trial evaluating a brief parenting program with children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82, 1193–1200. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037246.
Triulzi, M. (2008). Do the Pikler and RIE methods promote infant-parent attachment? Smith College School for Social Work, Northampton, MA: Unpublished doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis. https://ly.smith.edu/ef/etd7235.
Tucker, J. (2006). Using video to enhance the learning in a first attempt at ‘Watch, Wait and Wonder’. Infant Observation, 9, 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698030600810359.
Wiklund, I., Wiklund, J., Pettersson, V., & Boström, A. M. (2018). New parents’ experience of information and sense of security related to postnatal care: A systematic review. Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, 17, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2018.06.001.
Williford, A. P., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Predicting change in parenting stress across early childhood: child and maternal factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 251–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9082-3.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the contribution of Mrs. Emily McDonald from ‘Being with Baby’, Western Australia, for her assistance with facilitating the parent-child classes for this study. We would also like to thank our participants and local community organizations in the City of Joondalup and the City of Wanneroo for supporting us with our recruitment process.
Author Contributions
A.C.R., L.P and T.O.S. conceptualized and designed the study. A.C.R. conducted the intervention with supervision from TOS. A.C.R. performed the data analysis with statistical support from J.L. J.L., L.P. and T.O.S. assisted with interpretation of results. All authors critically reviewed the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
Ethics approval was provided through the Edith Cowan University (ECU) Human Research Ethics Committee for this study (project code: 27263) and all participants provided informed consent.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary information
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Richardson, A.C., Lo, J., Priddis, L. et al. A Quasi-Experimental Study of the Respectful Approach on Early Parenting Competence and Stress. J Child Fam Stud 29, 2796–2810 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01762-w
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01762-w