Abstract
Objectives
The current study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the “Parental Knowledge Questionnaire-PKQ”, a new measure for the assessment of different constructs regarding parental knowledge and its sources of information (i.e., adolescent disclosure, parental solicitation, and parental control) in the Spanish context. To test the usefulness of these theoretical constructs would contribute to improving a cultural-based approach in research, as well as to expanding the conceptual replication of Kerr and Stattin’s model across cultural contexts.
Methods
The final sample was composed of 1280 adolescents from 13 state secondary schools in Galicia (NW Spain), aged 12–18 (M = 13.32; SD = 1.24), 52.3% males.
Results
The results indicated good internal consistency and construct validity for the developed scales across gender and supported a three-factor model for the sources of knowledge scale, which revealed one specific dimension of disclosure, one specific for solicitation and another specific for control. Results evidenced good convergent validity of the PKQ through bivariate associations with external criteria. Regarding longitudinal convergent validity, low adolescent disclosure was the only predictor of parental knowledge and of different types of problematic behaviour one year later. In addition, significant interactions were found between sources of knowledge, as well as between adolescent disclosure and gender.
Conclusions
The PKQ shows good psychometric properties and the current results replicate in the Spanish context the findings of Kerr and Stattin reinterpreting parental monitoring. Implications of these results regarding intervention programs aimed at preventing antisocial behaviour and substance use in adolescence are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmad, I., Smetana, J. G., & Klimstra, T. (2015). Maternal monitoring, adolescent disclosure, and adolescent adjustment among Palestinian refugee youth in Jordan. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 25, 403–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12133.
Bowman, M. A., Prelow, H. M., & Weaver, S. R. (2007). Parenting behaviors, association with deviant peers, and delinquency in African American adolescents: A mediated-moderation model. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 517–527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9117-7.
Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Byrne, B. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with MPLUS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.
Clark, H. K., Shamblen, S. R., Ringwalt, C. L., & Hanley, S. (2012). Predicting high risk adolescents’ substance use over time: The role of parental monitoring. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 33, 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-012-0266-z.
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioural sciences (3rd ed.). Mahawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Collins, W. A., & Laursen, B. (2004). Parent-adolescent relationships and influences. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 331–361). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780471726746.ch11
Collins, W. A., & Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescent development in interpersonal context. In W. Damon, R. M. Lerner, D. Kuhn, R. S. Siegler, & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Child and adolescent development: An advanced course (pp. 551–590). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Criss, M. M., Lee, T. K., Morris, A. S., Cui, L., Bosler, C. D., Shreffler, K. M., & Silk, J. S. (2015). Link between monitoring behavior and adolescent adjustment: An analysis of direct and indirect effects. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 668–678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9877-0.
Cutrín, O., Gómez-Fraguela, J. A., Maneiro, L., & Sobral, J. (2017). Effects of parenting practices through deviant peers on nonviolent and violent antisocial behaviours in middle- and late-adolescence. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 9, 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpal.2017.02.001.
Cutrín, O., Gómez-Fraguela, J. A., & Sobral, J. (2017a). Gender differences in the influence of parenting on youth antisocial behaviour through deviant peers. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 20, e58 https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2017.53.
Cutrín, O., Gómez-Fraguela, J. A., & Sobral, J. (2017b). Two faces of parental support: Risk and protection for antisocial youth depending on parental knowledge. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 296–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0559-6.
Cutrín, O., Maneiro, L., Sobral, J., & Gómez-Fraguela, J. A. (2018). Validation of the deviant peers scale in Spanish adolescents: A new measure to assess antisocial behaviour in peers. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-018-9710-6
Cutrín, O., Maneiro, L., Sobral, J., & Gómez-Fraguela, J. A. (2019). Longitudinal effects of parenting mediated deviant peers on violent and non-violent antisocial behaviour and substance use in adolescence. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 11, 23–32. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2018a12.
Derzon, J. H. (2010). The correspondence of family features with problem, aggressive, criminal, and violent behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 6, 263–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-010-9098-0.
Eaton, N. R., Krueger, R. F., Johnson, W., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2009). Parental monitoring, personality, and delinquency: Further support for a reconceptualization of monitoring. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.10.006.
Gault-Sherman, M. (2012). It's a two-way street: The bidirectional relationship between parenting and delinquency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 121–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9656-4.
Harris-McKoy, D. (2016). Adolescent delinquency: Is too much or too little parental control a problem? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25, 2079–2088. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0383-z.
Hoeve, M., Dubas, J. S., Eichelsheim, V. I., van der Laan, P. H., Smeenk, W., & Gerris, J. R. M. (2009). The relationship between parenting and delinquency: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 749–775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9310-8.
Hoeve, M., Stams, G. J. J. M., Put, C. E., Dubas, J. S., Laan, P. H., & Gerris, J. R. M. (2012). A meta-analysis of attachment to parents and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 771–785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9608-1.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Jacobson, K. C., & Crockett, L. J. (2000). Parental monitoring and adolescent adjustment: An ecological perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 65–97. https://doi.org/10.1207/SJRA1001_4.
Javdani, S., Sadeh, N., & Verona, E. (2011). Expanding our lens: Female pathways to antisocial behavior in adolescence and adulthood. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 1324–1348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.09.002.
Jiménez-Iglesias, A., Moreno, C., Granado-Alcón, M. C., & López, A. (2012). Parental knowledge and adolescent adjustment: substance use and health-related quality of life. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 15, 132–144. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_SJOP.2012.v15.n1.37297.
Jiménez-Iglesias, A., Moreno, C., Rivera, F., & García-Moya, I. (2013). The role of the family in promoting responsible substance use in adolescence. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 585–602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9737-y.
Keijsers, L., Frijns, T., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (2009). Developmental links of adolescent disclosure, parental solicitation, and control with delinquency: Moderation by parental support. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1314–1327. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016693.
Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.3.366.
Kerr, M., Stattin, H., & Burk, W. J. (2010). A reinterpretation of parental monitoring in longitudinal perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 39–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00623.x.
Lahey, B. B., Van Hulle, C. A., D’Onofrio, B. M., Rodgers, J. L., & Waldman, I. D. (2008). Is parental knowledge of their adolescent offspring’s whereabouts and peer associations spuriously associated with offspring delinquency? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 807–823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9214-z.
Laird, R. D., Marrero, M. D., & Sentse, M. (2010). Revisiting parental monitoring: Evidence that parental solicitation can be effective when needed most. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 1431–1441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9453-5.
Laudani, C., Guzzo, G., Lo Cascio, V., Pace, U., & Cacioppo, M. (2014). Does a Mediterranean model of family functioning in the perception of Italian and Spanish adolescents exist? A cross-national study. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5, 377–385. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n1p377.
Lionetti, F., Palladino, E. B., Passini Moses, C., Casonato, M., Hamzallari, O., Ranta, M., Dellagiulia, A., Keijsers, L. (in press). The development of parental monitoring during adolescence: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Developmental Psychology.
Lippold, M. A., Fosco, G. M., Ram, N., & Feinberg, M. E. (2016). Knowledge lability: Within-person changes in parental knowledge and their associations with adolescent problem behavior. Prevention Science, 17, 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-015-0604-5.
Luengo, M. A., Otero-López, J. M., Romero, E., Gómez-Fraguela, J. A., & Tavares-Filho, E. T. (1999). Análisis de ítems para la evaluación de la conducta antisocial: Un estudio transcultural [Item analysis in the assessment of antisocial behavior: a croos-cultural study]. Revista Iberoamericana Délelőtt Diagnóstico York Evaluación Psicológica, 1, 21–36. http://www.aidep.org/03_ridep/ridep.html.
Marsiglia, F. F., Williams, L. R., Ayers, S. L., & Booth, J. M. (2014). Familias: Preparando la nueva generación: A randomized control trial testing the effects on positive parenting practices. Research on Social Work Practice, 24, 310–320. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731513498828.
Meredith, W., & Teresi, J. A. (2006). An essay on measurement and factorial invariance. Medical Care, 44, S69–S77. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mlr.0000245438.73837.89.
Muñoz, L. C., Pakalniskiene, V., & Frick, P. J. (2011). Parental monitoring and youth behavior problems: Moderation by callous-unemotional traits over time. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 20, 261–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-011-0172-6.
Oliva, A., Jiménez, J. M., & Parra, Á. (2009). Protective effect of supportive family relationships and the influence of stressful life events on adolescent adjustment. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 22, 137–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800802082296.
Oliva, A., Parra, Á., Sánchez-Queija, I., & López, F. (2007). Estilos educativos materno y paterno: Evaluación y relación con el ajuste adolescente. Anales Délelőtt Psicología, 23, 49–56. http://www.um.es/analesps.
Orte, C., Ballester, L., & March, M. X. (2013). El enfoque de la competencia familiar, una experiencia de trabajo socioeducativo con familias [The family competence approach, an experience of socio-educational work with families]. Pedagogía Social Revista interuniversitaria, 21, 13–37. http://www.redalyc.org.
Parra, Á., & Oliva, A. (2006). Un análisis longitudinal sobre las dimensiones relevantes del estilo parental durante la adolescencia. Infancia York Aprendizaje / Journal for the Study of Education and Development, 29, 453–470. https://doi.org/10.1174/021037006778849594.
Persson, S., Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2004). Adolescents' conceptions of family democracy: Does their own behaviour play a role? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1, 317–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405620444000238.
Racz, S. J., & McMahon, R. J. (2011). The relationship between parental knowledge and monitoring and child and adolescent conduct problems: A 10-year update. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 377–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-011-0099-y.
Rekker, R., Keijsers, L., Branje, S., Koot, H., & Meeus, W. (2017). The interplay of parental monitoring and socioeconomic status in predicting minor delinquency between and within adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 59, 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.06.001.
Robles, Z., & Romero, E. (2011). Programas de entrenamiento para padres de niños con problemas de conducta: Una revisión de su eficacia [Parent training of children with conduct problems: An efficacy review]. Anales Délelőtt Psicología, 27, 86–101. http://revistas.um.es/analesps.
Schaefer, D. R. (2018). A network analysis of factors leading adolescents to befriend substance-using peers. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 34, 275–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-016-9335-4.
Sitnick, S. L., Shaw, D. S., & Hyde, L. W. (2014). Precursors of adolescent substance use from early childhood and early adolescence: Testing a developmental cascade model. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 125–140. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000539.
Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1085. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00210.
Stattin, H., Persson, S., Burk, W. J., & Kerr, M. (2011). Adolescents’ perceptions of the democratic functioning in their families. European Psychologist, 16, 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000039.
Vieno, A., Nation, M., Pastore, M., & Santinello, M. (2009). Parenting and antisocial behavior: A model of the relationship between adolescent self-disclosure, parental closeness, parental control, and adolescent antisocial behavior. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1509–1519. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016929.
Willoughby, T., & Hamza, C. A. (2011). A longitudinal examination of the bidirectional associations among perceived parenting behaviors, adolescent disclosure and problem behavior across the high school years. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 463–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9567-9.
Author Contributions
O.C. designed and executed the study, assisted with the data analyses, and wrote the paper. L.M. analysed the data and collaborated with the writing of the study. J.S. collaborated with the design and writing of the study. J.A.G-F.: collaborated in the writing and editing of the final manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Research involving Human Participants and/or Animals
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cutrín, O., Maneiro, L., Sobral, J. et al. Longitudinal Validation of a New Measure to Assess Parental Knowledge and its Sources in Spanish Adolescents. J Child Fam Stud 28, 1220–1235 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01366-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01366-z