Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Relational Permanence and Psychological well-being among African American Adolescents in Foster Care

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The field of child welfare has historically focused on physical safety and legal permanency with little emphasis on child well-being or the importance of social relationships in positive youth development. We add to the literature regarding child well-being among African American adolescents in care—a group that is overrepresented within the foster care system. Specific attention is given to relational permanence—the concept of continuous supportive relationships marked by mutual trust and respect. Descriptive statistics were used to assess the prevalence of relational permanence and the change of relational permanence over time. Regression analyses were used to explain the variation associated with relational permanence and to investigate whether relational permanence predicts psychological well-being. The findings indicate that relational permanence varies at the start of foster care for African American adolescents. Yet, relational permanence did not significantly change over time. Maltreatment type had the largest influence on predicting the attainment of relational permanence over time (p < 0.05). Relational permanence was positively correlated with higher psychological well-being (p < 0.05). An increase in relational permanence over time also significantly predicted higher psychological well-being over time (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that social support from a variety of different sources aid youth in staying mentally healthy despite major disruptions in support from biological parents. These findings support the importance of developing a wide variety of social support networks to improve positive developmental outcomes among African American adolescents in foster care.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ainsworth, M. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). A psychological study of the strange situation.. Oxford, England: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avery, R. J., & Freundlich, M. (2009). You’re all grown up now: Termination of foster care support at age 18. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 247–257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beale Spencer, M., Harpalani, V., Cassidy, E., Jacobs, C. Y., Donde, S., Goss, T. N., Muñoz-Miller, M., Charles, N., & Wilson, S. (2015). Understanding vulnerability and resilience from a normative developmental perspective: implications for racially and ethnically diverse youth. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds), Developmental Psychopathology. pp. 627-672. 2nd Edn, Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. (2002). Early attachment security, subsequent maternal sensitivity, and later child development: Does continuity in development depend upon continuity of caregiving? Attachment and Human Development, 4, 361–387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Billingsley, A., & Giovannoni, J. M. (1972). Children of the storm. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colby, S. L., & Ortman, J. M. (2015). Projections of the size and composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060, current population reports, P25-1143. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, M. E., Spencer, R., & Ward, R. (2010). Supporting youth in transition from foster care: Formal and informal connections. Child Welfare, 89, 125–143.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Commodari, E. (2013). Preschool teacher attachment, school readiness and risk of learning difficulties. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 123–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Courtney, M. E., Dworsky, A., Brown, A., Cary, C., Love, K., & Vorhies, V. (2011). Midwest evaluation of adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 26. Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cushing, G., Samuels, G. M., & Kerman, B. (2014). Profiles of relational permanence at 22: Variability in parental supports and outcomes among young adults with foster care histories. Children and Youth Services Review, 39, 73–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flynn, R. J., & Tessier, N. G. (2011). Promotive and risk factors as concurrent predictors of educational outcomes in supported transitional living: Extended care and maintenance in Ontario, Canada. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 2498–2503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonagy, P., Steele, M., Steele, H., Leigh, T., Kennedy, R., Mattoon, G., & Target, M. (1995). Attachment, the reflective self, and borderline states: The predictive specificity of the adult attachment interview and pathological emotional development. In S. Goldberg & J. Kerr (Eds.), Attachment theory: Social, developmental, and clinical perspectives (pp. 233–278). Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goemans, A., van Geel, M., & Vedder, P. (2015). Over three decades of longitudinal research on the development of foster children: A meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 42, 121–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ruffalo, M. C., Ortega, R. M., & Clarke, J. (2008). Behaviors of youth involved in the child welfare system. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 35–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harden, B.J. (2004). Safety and stability for foster children: A developmental perspective. The Future of Children, 14, 30–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haworth, C., Wright, M., Luciano, M., Martin, N., de Geus, E., Van Beijsterveldt, C., & Plomin, R. (2010). The heritability of general cognitive ability increases linearly from childhood to young adulthood. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 1112–1120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James, S., Landsverk, J., & Slyman, D. (2004). Placement movement in and out-of-home-care. Children and Youth Services Review, 26, 185–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, H., & Hojer, I. (2012). Education for disadvantaged groups – structural and individual challenges. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 1135–1142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, L. (2014). The role of social support in the transition from foster care to emerging adulthood. Journal of Family Social Work, 17, 81–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kisiel, C. L., Fehrenbach, T., Torgersen, E., Stolbach, B., McClelland, G., Griffin, G., & Burkman, K. (2014). Constellations of interpersonal trauma and symptoms in child welfare: Implications for a developmental trauma framework. Journal of Family Violence, 29, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laible, D. J., Carlo, G., & Raffaelli, M. (2000). The differential relations of parent and peer attachment to adolescent adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 45–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, J. S. (2009). Communimetrics: A communication theory of measurement in human service settings. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Changing demographics in the American population: Implications for research on minority children and adolescents. In V. C. McLoyd & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Studying minority adolescents (pp. 3–28). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mota, C. P., & Matos, P. M. (2015). Adolescents in institutional care: Significant adults, resilience and well-being. Child & Youth Care Forum, 44, 209–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munson, M. R., & McMillen, J. C. (2009). Natural mentoring and psychosocial outcomes among older youth transitioning from foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 104–111.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nesmith, A., & Christophersen, K. (2014). Smoothing the transition to adulthood: Creating ongoing supportive relationships among foster youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 37, 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osgood, D. W., Foster, E. M., & Courtney, M. E. (2010). Vulnerable populations and the transition to adulthood. The Future of Children, 20, 209–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., Spencer, R., Keller, T. E., Liang, B., & Noam, G. (2006). A model for the influence of mentoring relationships on youth development. Journal of Community Psychology, 34, 691–707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rholes, W. S., & Simpson, J. A. (2004). Attachment theory: Basic concepts and contemporary questions. In W. S. Rholes & J. A. Simposn (Eds.), Adult Attachment. pp. 3-14. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rolock, N., & White, K. R. (2016). Post-permanency discontinuity: A longitudinal examination of outcomes for foster youth after adoption or guardianship. Children and Youth Services Review, 70, 419–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, D. M., O’Reilly, A. L. R., Luan, X., & Localio, A. R. (2007). The impact of placement stability on behavioral well-being for children in foster care. Pediatrics, 119, 336–344.

  • Rutman, D., & Hubberstey, C. (2016). Is anybody there? Informal supports accessed and sought by youth from foster care. Children and Youths Services Review, 63, 21–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, J. P., Herz, D., Hernandez, P. M., & Marshall, J. M. (2007). Maltreatment and delinquency: Investigating child welfare bias in juvenile justice processing. Children and Youth Services Review, 29, 1035–1050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, J. P., & Testa, M. F. (2005). Child maltreatment and juvenile delinquency: Investigating the role of placement and placement instability. Children and Youth Services Review, 27, 227–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuels, G. M. (2008). A reason, a season, or a lifetime: Relational permanence among young adults with foster care backgrounds. Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shook, J., Goodkind, S., Pohlig, R. T., Schelbe, L., Herring, D., & Kim, K. H. (2011). Patterns of mental health, substance abuse, and justice involvement among youth aging out of child welfare. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81, 420–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, W. B. (2011). Youth leaving foster care: A developmental, relationship-based approach to practice.. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C. J., & Devore, W. (2004). African American children in the child welfare and kinship system: from exclusion to over inclusion. Children and Youth Services Review, 26, 427–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smithgall, C., Jarpe-Ratner, E., Yang, D., DeCoursey, J., Brooks, L., & George, R. (2008). Family assessment in child welfare: The integrated assessment program in policy and practice.. Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and adaptation from birth to adulthood. New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stott, T., & Gustavsson, N. (2010). Balancing permanency and stability for youth in foster care. Children and Youth Services, 32, 619–625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, A. E., Greeson, J. K. P., & Brunsink, A. M. (2016). Natural mentoring among older youth in and aging out of foster care: A systematic review. Children and Youth Services, 61, 40–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Towbin, K. E., & Showalter, J. E. (2008). Adolescent development. In A. Tasman, J. Kay, J. A. Lieberman, M. B. First & M. Maj (Eds.), Psychiatry. pp. 161-180. 3rd edn, Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Travis, L. A., Bliwise, N. G., Binder, J. L., & Horne-Moyer, H. L. (2001). Changes in clients’ attachment styles over the course of time-limited dynamic psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 38, 149–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • US Department of Health and Human Services. (2015). The AFCARS report. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/cb/afcarsreport22.pdf

  • Vranceanu, A., Hobfoll, S., & Johnson, R. J. (2007). Child multi-type maltreatment and associated depression and PTSD symptoms: The role of social support and stress. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 71–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, A. M. (2015). Legal permanency isn’t everything: Readdressing the need for well-being indicators in child protection courts. Family Court Review, 53, 326–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Washington, T., Gleeson, J. P., & Rulison, K. L. (2013). Competence and African American children in informal kinship care: The role of family. Children and Youth Services Review, 35, 1305–1312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Washington, T., Cryer-Coupet, Q., Coakley, T. M., Labban, J., Gleeson, J. P., & Shears, J. (2014). Examining maternal and paternal involvement as promotive factors of competence in African American children in informal kinship care. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 9–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., & Albersheirn, L. (2000). Attachment security in infancy and early adulthood: A twenty-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 71, 684–689.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinfield, N. S., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (2000). Attachment from infancy to early adulthood in a high-risk sample: Continuity, discontinuity, and their correlates. Child Development, 71, 695–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A., & Shinar, O. (2000). Measuring perceived and received social support. In S. Cohen, L. G. Underwood & B. H. Gottlieb (Eds.), Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 86–135). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, C. A., & Rowley, S. (2001). The schooling of ethnic minority children: Commentary. Educational Psychologist, 36, 57–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. A., Stoddard, S. A., Eisman, A. B., Caldwell, C. H., Aiyer, S. M., & Miller, A. (2013). Adolescent resilience: Promotive factors that inform prevention. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 215–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author Contributions

A.W.B.: designed and executed this study, conducted all data analyses, and wrote the paper. J.R. collaborated with the design and writing of the study. V.C. collaborated with the design and writing of the study. J.S. collaborated with the data analysis and editing of the final manuscript. P.D.K. collaborated in the editing of the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA

    Abigail Williams-Butler

  2. University of Michigan, Ann Abor, MI, 48103, USA

    Joseph P. Ryan, Vonnie C. McLoyd, John E. Schulenberg & Pamela E. Davis-Kean

Authors
  1. Abigail Williams-Butler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joseph P. Ryan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vonnie C. McLoyd
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. John E. Schulenberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Pamela E. Davis-Kean
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Abigail Williams-Butler.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

The University of Michigan provided IRB approval for this study. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Williams-Butler, A., Ryan, J.P., McLoyd, V.C. et al. Relational Permanence and Psychological well-being among African American Adolescents in Foster Care. J Child Fam Stud 27, 3277–3287 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1155-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1155-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation