Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Role of Generativity in Psychological Well-Being: Does it Differ for Childless Adults and Parents?

  • Published:
Journal of Adult Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Given that parenthood is considered a central adult status with developmental implications, and an increasing number of adults are childless, we assessed whether adult development is structured differently for parents and non-parents. This study’s main goal was to assess and compare the connection between generativity development—a key task of middle adulthood—and psychological well-being for childless adults (N = 289) and parents (N = 2,218), ages 35–74, using the 1995 MIDUS dataset. We also examined differences in these associations for women and men by parental status, because childlessness is often assumed to be more critical for females’ than males’ development. Structural equation modeling indicated a positive association between generativity and psychological well-being. Differences in this association for parents and childless adults were not evident, nor were there significant differences for childless women and mothers, and childless men and fathers. Implications of these findings are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen, K. R. (1989). Single women/family ties: Life histories of older women. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allison, P. D. (2001). Missing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • An, J. S., & Cooney, T. (2006). Psychological well-being in mid to late life: The role of generativity development and parent-child relationships across the lifespan. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 20–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (1997). Young people’s conceptions of the transition to adulthood. Youth and Society, 29, 3–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Astone, N. M., Nathanson, C. A., Schoen, R., & Kim, Y. J. (1999). Family demography, social theory and investment in social capital. Population and Development Review, 25, 1–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azar, S. T. (2002). Adult development and parenthood: A social-cognitive perspective. In J. Demick (Ed.), Handbook of adult development (pp. 391–415). New York: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology, 23, 611–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beckman, L. J., & Houser, B. B. (1982). The consequences of childlessness on the social-psychological well-being of older women. Journal of Gerontology, 37, 243–250.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J. (1997). Determinants of attachment security: Maternal infant and social-contextual influences. In W. Koops, J. Hoksma & van den Boom (Eds.), Early mother–child interaction and attachment: Old and new approaches (pp. 39–52). Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braverman, L. (1989). Beyond the myth of motherhood. In M. McGoldrick, C. M. Anderson & F. Walsh (Eds.), Women in families (pp. 227–243). New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brief, A. P., Butcher, A. H., George, J. M., & Link, K. E. (1993). Integrating bottom–up and top–down theories of subjective well-being: The case of health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 646–653.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connidis, I. A., & Davies, L. (1990). Confidants and companions in later life: The place of family and friends. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 45, S141–S149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connidis, I. A., & McMullin, J. A. (1993). To have or have not: Parent status and the subjective well-being of older men and women. The Gerontologist, 33, 630–636.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Externalizing behavior problems and discipline revisited: Nonlinear effects and variation by culture, context, and gender. Psychological Inquiry, 8, 161–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dye, J. L. (2005). Fertility of American women: June 2004. Retrieved July 09, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p20-555.pdf.

  • Edin, K., & Kefalas, M. (2005). Promises that I can keep: Why poor women put motherhood before marriage. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eggebeen, D. J., & Knoester, C. (2001). Does fatherhood matter for men? Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 381–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H., Jr. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69, 1–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H., Johnson, M. K., & Crosnoe, R. (2003). The emergence and development of life course theory. In J. T. Mortimer & M. J. Shanahan (Eds.), Handbook of the life course (pp. 3–22). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1978). Adulthood. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1985). The life cycle completed: A review. New York: W. W.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franz, C. E., McClelland, D. C., & Weinberger, J. (1991). Childhood antecedents of conventional social accomplishment in midlife adults: A 36-year prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 586–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillespie, R. (2003). Childfree and feminine: Understanding the gender identity of voluntarily childless women. Gender and Society, 17, 122–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, R. L. (1978). Transformations: Growth and change in adult life. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hareven, T. K. (1991). The history of the family and the complexity of social change. American Historical Review, 96, 95–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, A. J., & Dollahite, D. C. (1997). Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, T., Jacobson, C., & Holland, K. (1999). Persistence and change in decisions to remain childless. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 531–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffries, S., & Konnert, C. (2002). Regret and psychological well-being among voluntarily and involuntarily childless women and mothers. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 54, 89–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., Davies, M., & Raveis, V. H. (1985). The stressfulness of daily social roles for women: Marital, occupational and household roles. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26, 64–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Davis, C. G., & Kendler, K. S. (1997). Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US National Comborbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1101–1119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., & Ryff, C. D. (1998). Generativity in adult lives: Social structural contours and quality of life consequences. In D. P. McAdams & E. de St. Aubin (Eds.), Generativity and adult development: How and why we are for the next generation (pp. 227–264). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Koropeckyj-Cox, T. (1998). Loneliness and depression in middle and old age: Are the childless more vulnerable? Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 53B, S503–S312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koropeckyj-Cox, T. (2002). Beyond parental status: Psychological well-being in middle and old age. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 957–971.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koropeckyj-Cox, T. (2003). Three childless men’s pathways into old age. In J. Gubrium & J. Holstein (Eds.), Ways of aging (pp. 77–95). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koropeckyj-Cox, T., & Pendell, G. (2007). Attitudes about childlessness in the United States: Correlates of positive, neutral, and negative responses. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 1054–1082.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotre, J. (1996). White gloves: How we create ourselves through memory. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaMastro, V. (2001). Childless by choice? Attributions and attitudes concerning family size. Social Behavior and Personality, 29, 231–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeMasters, G. (1957). Parenthood as crisis. Marriage and Family Living, 19, 352–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letherby, G. (2002). Childless and bereft? Stereotypes and realities in relation to voluntary and involuntary childlessness and womanhood. Social Inquiry, 72, 7–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levinson, D. J. (1978). The seasons of man’s life. New York: Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loehlin, L. J. (2004). Latent variable models: An introduction to factor, path, and structural analysis (4th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5, 100–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P., & de St. Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generativity and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 221–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P., de St. Aubin, E., & Logan, R. L. (1993). Generativity among young, midlife, and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 8, 221–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMullin, J. A., & Marshall, V. W. (1996). Family, friends, stress and well-being: Does childlessness make a difference? Canadian Journal on Aging, 15, 355–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrill, D. M. (1997). Caring for elderly parents: Juggling work, family, and caregiving in middle and working class families. Westport, CT: Auburn House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milardo, R. (2005). Generative uncle and nephew relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 1226–1236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moen, P., & Roehling, P. (2005). The career mystique: Cracks in the American dream. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, S. P., & Berkowitz King, R. (2001). Why have children in the 21st century? Biological predisposition, social coercion, rational choice. European Journal of Population, 17, 3–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakano Glenn, E. (1994). Social constructions of mothering: A thematic overview. In E. Nakano Glenn, G. Chang & L. Rennie (Eds.), Mothering ideology, experience, and agency (pp. 1–29). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palkovitz, R. (2002). Involved fathering and men’s adult development: Provisional balances. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, K. (2002). Stigma management among the voluntarily childless. Sociological Perspectives, 45, 21–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, G. (1983). Parental “affectionless control” as an antecedent to adult depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 956–960.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, L. N., Schoenberg, S. P., Holmes, S. J., Ratcliff, K. S., Benham, A., & Works, J. (1985). Early home environment and retrospective recall: A test for concordance between siblings with and without psychiatric disorders. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55, 27–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossi, A. S. (2001). Developmental roots of adult social responsibility. In A. S. Rossi (Ed.), Caring and doing for others: Social responsibility in the domains of family, work, and community (pp. 227–320). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossi, A., & Rossi, P. (1990). Of human bonding. New York: de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubinstein, R. L. (1996). Childlessness, legacy, and generativity. Generations, 20, 58–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, B. A., Krause, N., Chatters, L. M., Connell, C. M., & Ingersoll-Dayton, B. (2004). Emotional support from parents early in life, aging, and health. Psychology and Aging, 19, 4–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snarey, J. (1993). How fathers care for the next generation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snarey, J., Son, L., Kuehne, V., Hauser, S., & Vaillant, G. (1987). The role of parenting in men’s psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of early adulthood infertility and midlife generativity. Developmental Psychology, 23, 593–603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Darling, N. E., & Fletcher, A. C. (1995). Authoritative parenting and adolescent development: An ecological journey. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder Jr. & K. Luescher (Eds.), Examining lives in context (pp. 423–466). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J. W. (1996). Childbearing among unwed African American adolescents: A critique of theories. Affilia, 11, 278–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, A., & Young-DeMarco, S. (2001). Four decades of trends in attitudes toward family issues in the United States: The 1960’s through the 1990’s. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 1009–1037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillant, G. E., & Milofsky, E. (1980). Natural history of male psychological health: IX. Empirical evidence for Erikson’s model of the life cycle. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 1348–1359.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallen, J. (2002). Balancing work and family: The role of the workplace. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., Simons, R. L., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., et al. (1992). Intergenerational continuity of parental rejection and depressed affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 1036–1045.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Z., & Hayward, M. D. (2001). Childlessness and the psychological well-being of older persons. Journal of Gerontology, 56B, S311–S320.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Missouri, 314 Gentry Hall, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA

    Tanja Rothrauff & Teresa M. Cooney

Authors
  1. Tanja Rothrauff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Teresa M. Cooney
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tanja Rothrauff.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rothrauff, T., Cooney, T.M. The Role of Generativity in Psychological Well-Being: Does it Differ for Childless Adults and Parents?. J Adult Dev 15, 148–159 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-008-9046-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-008-9046-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation