Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mindful Learning: A Moderator of Gender Differences in Mathematics Performance

  • Published:
Journal of Adult Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Past research has demonstrated that males outperform females in mathematics (Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J., Psychol Bull 107:139–155, 1990a). Research has also shown that encouraging mindful learning–learning information in a conditional rather than an absolute way–can increase mathematics performance in females (Ritchhart, R., & Perkins, D. N., J Social Issues 56:27–47, 2000). This paper examines the moderating role of mindful learning for gender differences, by manipulating mindful learning for females’ and males’ performance on a novel math task. The results from this study show that males performed better than females when mindful learning was not encouraged (absolute instruction), but males and females performed equally well when mindful learning was encouraged (conditional instruction). Thus we find that mindful learning moderates gender differences in math performance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Although the purpose of this paper is not to debate the philosophy of mathematics, it is important to note that there are “Platonistic” views of math, which assume that math exists “independently of us and outside of space and time” (Faris 2000, p. 1278). This paper holds more of an “Intuitionist” view that “mathematical objects are invented constructions, not independent of us” (Faris 2000, p. 1278), arguing that humans have contributed to math over time, if not by discovering new mathematical truths, then by examining old truths in new ways or developing new algorithms and procedures.

  2. Although this homogeneity will limit the external validity of the results described here, this district was picked especially for its homogeneity in an effort to control for race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status, as research has shown these factors to affect math performance, especially when there are written instructions and word problems to solve (Abedi and Lord 2001; Hyde et al. 1990a). Future studies should examine if similar effects exist in more diverse school environments.

  3. This study did not control for length of instructions. Conditional instruction was three pages long, whereas absolute instruction was one page long. Although length of instruction could be a potential confound, it cannot explain the results found here. If length of instruction confounded the results, it should have done so in the same way for both males and females, as there is no reason to suspect that the length of instruction would differentially affect males and females. We would then expect to see a main effect of instruction, which was not found in this study.

  4. It is important to note that those excluded do not include participants who attempted work on the problem set but did not score points, or participants who failed to demonstrate in the comprehension check that they had read the instructions but did score points on the problem set.

  5. When broken down by condition, randomly excluded participants did not differ significantly in composite math score or orientation to authority from those included.

  6. Ritchhart and Perkins (2000) grouped limited workability and unworkable procedures together, while this analysis distinguished between limited workability and unworkable procedures.

References

  • Abedi, J., & Lord, C. (2001). The language factor in mathematics tests. Applied Measurement in Education, 14(3), 219–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anglin, L. (2007). Mindful learning: A potential moderator of gender differences in mathematics performance. Honors Thesis at the Department of Psychology, Harvard College, Cambridge, MA.

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benbow, C., & Benbow, R. M. (1987). Extreme mathematical talent: A hormonally induced ability? In D. Ottoson (Ed.), Duality and Unity of the Brain (pp. 147–157). London: Macmillian.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benbow, C., & Stanley, J. (1980, December 12). Sex differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact? Science, 210, 1262–1264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benbow, C., & Stanley, J. (1982). Consequences in high school and college of sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: A longitudinal perspective. American Educational Research Journal, 19(4), 598–622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benbow, C., & Stanley, J. (1983, December 12). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning: More facts. Science, 222, 1029–1031.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, M. B., Nuttall, R., Pezaris, E., & Benbow, C. P. (1995). The influence of spatial ability on gender differences in mathematics college entrance test scores across diverse samples. Developmental Psychology, 31, 697–705.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chipman, S., Krantz, D., & Silver, R. (1992). Mathematics anxiety and science careers among able college women. Psychological Science, 3(5), 292–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Downey, D. B., & Vogt Yuan, A. S. (2005). Sex differences in school performance during high school: Puzzling patterns and possible explanations. The Sociological Quarterly, 46, 299–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, A. M., & Taylor, B. W. (1982). Children’s perceptions of elementary teachers as authority figures. The Journal of Social Psychology, 118, 249–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faris, W. G. (2000). Book review: Philosophy of mathematics: An introduction to the world of proofs and pictures. Notices of the AMS, 47(10), 1276–1280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennema, E., Carpenter, T. P., Jacobs, V. R., Franke, M. L., & Levi, L. W. (1998). A longitudinal study of gender differences in young children's mathematical thinking. Educational Researcher, 27, 6–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuson, K., Carroll, W., & Drueck, J. (2000). Achievement results for second and third graders using the standards-based curriculum everyday mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 31(3), 277–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuson, K., Kalchman, M., & Bransford, J. D. (2005). Mathematical understanding: An introduction. In M. S. Donovan & J. D. Bransford (Eds.), How students learn: History, mathematics, and science in the classroom (pp. 217–256). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, A. M., & De Lisi, R. (1994). Gender differences in scholastic aptitude test-Mathematics problem solving among high-ability students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(2), 204–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, A. M., De Lisi, R., Holst, P. C., McGillicuddy-De Lisi, A. V., Morely, M., & Cahalan, C. (2000). Gender differences in advanced mathematical problem solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75, 165–190.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guimond, S., & Roussel, L. (2001). Bragging about one’s school grades: Gender stereotyping and students’ perception of their abilities in science, mathematics, and language. Social Psychology of Education, 4(3–4), 275–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamm, J. V., & Perry, M. (2002). Learning mathematics in first-grade classrooms: On whose authority? Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 126–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiebert, J., & Wearne, D. (1996). Instruction, understanding, and skill in multidigit addition and subtraction. Cognition and Instruction, 14(3), 251–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990a). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139–155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., Ryan, M., Frost, L. A., & Hopp, C. (1990b). Gender comparisons of mathematics attitudes and affect: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 299–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenney-Benson, G. A., Pomerantz, E. M., Ryan, A. M., & Patrick, H. (2006). Sex differences in math performance: The role of children’s approach to schoolwork. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 11–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kimball, M. M. (1989). A new perspective on women’s math achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 105(2), 198–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lampert, M. (1990). When the problem is not the question and the solution is not the answer: Mathematical knowing and teaching. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 29–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langer, E. (1992). Matters of mind: Mindfulness/mindlessness in perspective. Consciousness and Cognition, 1, 289–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langer, E. (1993). A mindful education. Educational Psychologist, 28(1), 43–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langer, E. (1997). The power of mindful learning. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langer, E. (2000). Mindful learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(6), 220–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meece, J. L., Parsons, J. E., Kaczala, C. M., Goff, S. B., & Futterman, R. (1982). Sex differences in math achievement: Toward a model of academic choice. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 324–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendes-Barnett, S., & Ercikan, K. (2006). Examining sources of gender DIF in mathematics assessment using a confirmatory multidimensional model approach. Applied Measurement in Education, 19(4), 289–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nosek, B., Banaji, M., & Greenwald, A. (2002). Math = male, me = female, therefore math not equal me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 44–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, M. (1991). Learning and Transfer: Instructional Conditions and Conceptual Change. Cognitive Development, 6, 449–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raviv, A., Bar-Tal, D., Raviv, A., Biran, B., & Sela, Z. (2003). Teachers’ epistemic authority: Perceptions of students and teachers. Social Psychology of Education, 6, 17–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ripley, A. (2005). Who says a woman can’t be Einstein? Time, 165, 50–60. March 7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritchhart, R., & Perkins, D. N. (2000). Life in the mindful classroom: Nurturing the disposition of mindfulness. Journal of Social Issues, 56(1), 27–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubel, D., & Martin, C. (1998). Gender development. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. Social, emotional and personality development (5th ed.). New York: Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sappington, J., & Topolski, R. (2005). Maths performance as a function of sex, laterality, and age of pubertal onset. Laterality, 10(4), 369–379.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Barquissau, M. (2004). The costs of accepting gender differences: The role of stereotype endorsement in women’s experience in the math domain. Sex Roles, 50(11–12), 835–850.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J., & Bitz, B. (1996). Adolescents’ conceptions of teachers’ authority and their relations to rule violations in school. Child Development, 67, 1153–1172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spelke, E., & Ellison, K. (2008). Gender, math and science. Harvard University Psychology Department Working Paper.

  • Vermeer, H., Boekaerts, M., & Seegers, G. (2000). Motivational and gender differences: Sixth grade students’ mathematical problem-solving behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 308–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology Department, Harvard College, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA

    Laura P. Anglin

  2. Psychology Department, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA

    Michael Pirson

  3. Psychology Department, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA

    Ellen Langer

Authors
  1. Laura P. Anglin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michael Pirson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ellen Langer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ellen Langer.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Anglin, L.P., Pirson, M. & Langer, E. Mindful Learning: A Moderator of Gender Differences in Mathematics Performance. J Adult Dev 15, 132–139 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-008-9043-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-008-9043-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation