Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Traumatic Childhood Events and Autism Spectrum Disorder

  • S.I. : Emotion Regulation and Psychiatric Comorbidity in ASD
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Traumatic childhood events are associated with a wide range of negative physical, psychological and adaptive outcomes over the life course and are one of the few identifiable causes of psychiatric illness. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may be at increased risk for both encountering traumatic events and developing traumatic sequelae; however, this topic has been understudied. This review considers the rationale for examining traumatic events and related symptomology in individuals with ASD and summarizes the limited research on this topic. A conceptual framework for understanding the interplay of ASD, trauma and traumatic sequelae is proposed and recommendations for future research presented.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ackerman, P. T., Newton, J. E., McPherson, W. B., Jones, J. G., & Dykman, R. A. (1998). Prevalence of post traumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric diagnoses in three groups of abused children (sexual, physical, and both). Child Abuse and Neglect, 22, 759–774. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(98)00062-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akirav, I., & Maroun, M. (2007). The role of the medial prefrontal cortex–amygdala circuit in stress effects on the extinction of fear. Neural Plasticity, 2007, 30873. doi:10.1155/2007/30873.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM 5 bookpointUS.

  • Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186. doi:10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakken, T. L., Helverschou, S. B., Eilertsen, D. E., Heggelund, T., Myrbakk, E., & Martinsen, H. (2010). Psychiatric disorders in adolescents and adults with autism and intellectual disability: A representative study in one county in norway. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31, 1669–1677. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.04.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, D., Lightman, S. L., & Pariante, C. M. (2014). The interface of stress and the HPA axis in behavioural phenotypes of mental illness. In C. M. Pariante & M. D. Lapiz-Bluhm (Eds.), Behavioral neurobiology of stress-related disorders. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Sasson, A., Carter, A., & Briggs-Gowan, M. (2009). Sensory over-responsivity in elementary school: Prevalence and social-emotional correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 705–716. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9295-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, S. J., Stover, C. S., & Marans, S. R. (2011). The child and family traumatic stress intervention: Secondary prevention for youth at risk of developing PTSD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 676–685. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02321.x.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bettelheim, B. (1967). The empty fortress: Infantile autism and the birth of the self. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleil Walters, J., Hughes, T. L., Sutton, L. R., Marshall, S. N., Crothers, L. M., Lehman, C., & Huang, A. (2013). Maltreatment and depression in adolescent sexual offenders with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 22, 72–89. doi:10.1080/10538712.2013.735357.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J. D., & Vermetten, E. (2001). Stress and development: Behavioral and biological consequences. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 473–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brereton, A. V., Tonge, B. J., & Einfeld, S. L. (2006). Psychopathology in children and adolescents with autism compared to young people with intellectual disability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 863–870. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0125-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., Chen, Q., & Luo, Z. (2013). The role of intelligence in posttraumatic stress disorder: Does it vary by trauma severity? PLoS ONE, 8, e65391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065391.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (1996). Trauma symptom checklist for children. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J., Johnson, K., Bissada, A., Damon, L., Crouch, J., Gil, E., et al. (2001). The Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC): Reliability and association with abuse exposure in a multi-site study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, 1001–1014. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00253-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryson, S. A., Corrigan, S. K., McDonald, T. P., & Holmes, C. (2008). Characteristics of children with autism spectrum disorders who received services through community mental health centers. Autism, 12, 65–82. doi:10.1177/1362361307085214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, S., Bradley, P., Robinson, J., Allison, C., McHugh, M., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2014). Suicidal ideation and suicide plans or attempts in adults with Asperger’s syndrome attending a specialist diagnostic clinic: A clinical cohort study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1, 142–147. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70248-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders among children aged 8 years: Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, united states, 2010. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 63, 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, R. S., & Herman, B. H. (1990). A novel biochemical model linking dysfunctions in brain melatonin, proopiomelanocortin peptides, and serotonin in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 28, 773–793.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., Bukstein, O., Walter, H., Benson, R. S., Chrisman, A., Farchione, T. R., & Schoettle, U. (2010). Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 414–430. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2009.12.020.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Scheeringa, M. S. (2009). Post-traumatic stress disorder diagnosis in children: Challenges and promises. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 11, 91.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., & Mallah, K. (2005). Complex trauma. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 390–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, W. E., Keeler, G., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2007). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 577–584. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.577.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corbett, B. A., Mendoza, S., Abdullah, M., Wegelin, J. A., & Levine, S. (2006). Cortisol circadian rhythms and response to stress in children with autism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 59–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corbett, B. A., Mendoza, S., Wegelin, J. A., Carmean, V., & Levine, S. (2008). Variable cortisol circadian rhythms in children with autism and anticipatory stress. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience: JPN, 33, 227.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corbett, B. A., Schupp, C. W., Levine, S., & Mendoza, S. (2009). Comparing cortisol, stress, and sensory sensitivity in children with autism. Autism Research, 2, 39–49.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Croen, L. A., Najjar, D. V., Ray, G. T., Lotspeich, L., & Bernal, P. (2006). A comparison of health care utilization and costs of children with and without autism spectrum disorders in a large group-model health plan. Pediatrics, 118, e1203–e1211. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-0127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curry, K., Posluszny, M, & Kraska, S. (1993). Training criminal justice personnel to recognize offenders with disabilities. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services News in Print.

  • Danese, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiology and Behavior, 106, 29–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T. E., I. I. I., Fodstad, J. C., Jenkins, W. S., Hess, J. A., Moree, B. N., Dempsey, T., & Matson, J. L. (2010). Anxiety and avoidance in infants and toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: Evidence for differing symptom severity and presentation. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4, 305–313. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2009.10.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruin, E. I., Ferdinand, R. F., Meester, S., de Nijs, P. F., & Verheij, F. (2007). High rates of psychiatric co-morbidity in PDD-NOS. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 877–886. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0215-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, D. W., Canavera, K., Kleinpeter, F. L., Maccubbin, E., & Taga, K. (2005). The fears, phobias and anxieties of children with autism spectrum disorders and down syndrome: Comparisons with developmentally and chronologically age matched children. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 36, 3–26. doi:10.1007/s10578-004-3619-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Felitti, M., Vincent, J., Anda, M., Robert, F., Nordenberg, M., Williamson, M., & Edwards, B. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245–258. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., Turner, H., & Hamby, S. L. (2005). The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive, national survey. Child Maltreatment, 10, 5–25. doi:10.1177/1077559504271287.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Boldizar, J. P. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 424–430. doi:10.1097/00004583-199303000-00026.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2009). Defining and understanding complex trauma and complex traumatic stress disorders. In C. A. Courtois & J. D. Ford (Eds.), Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: An evidence-based guide. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. D., & Rogers, K. (1997). Traumatic events screening inventory (TESI). Hanover, NH: National Center for PTSD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerson, R., & Rappaport, N. (2012). Traumatic stress and posttraumatic stress disorder in youth: Recent research findings on clinical impact, assessment, and treatment. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52, 137–143. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilboa, A., Shalev, A. Y., Laor, L., Lester, H., Louzoun, Y., Chisin, R., & Bonne, O. (2004). Functional connectivity of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 263–272. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.08.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillott, A., Furniss, F., & Walter, A. (2001). Anxiety in high-functioning children with autism. Autism, 5, 277–286. doi:10.1177/1362361301005003005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillott, A., & Standen, P. J. (2007). Levels of anxiety and sources of stress in adults with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 11, 359–370.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, M. M., Cannistraci, C., Hollon, S. D., Gore, J., & Shelton, R. (2011). Childhood trauma history differentiates amygdala response to sad faces within MDD. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 886–895. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.12.004.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Groden, J., Baron, M. G., & Groden, G. (2006). Assessment and coping strategies. In M. G. Baron, J. Groden, G. Groden, & L. P. Lipsitt (Eds.), Stress and coping in autism. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groden, J., Diller, A., Bausman, M., Velicer, W., Norman, G., & Cautela, J. (2001). The development of a stress survey schedule for persons with autism and other developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 207–217.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grondhuis, S. N., & Aman, M. G. (2012). Assessment of anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 1345–1365. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2012.04.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grosso, K. (2012). Students traumatized in special education across America, seclusion, restraint, and aversives. Psychology Today. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/autism-in-real-life/201201/students-traumatized-in-special-education-across-america-seclusion-r.

  • Hall-Lande, J., Hewitt, A., Mishra, S., Piescher, K., & LaLiberte, T. (2014). Involvement of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the child protection system. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. Published online ahead of print. doi:10.1177/1088357614539834.

  • Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2006). The weak coherence account: Detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 5–25. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, H., & Rubia, K. (2012). Neuroimaging of child abuse: a critical review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 52. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00052.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hibbard, R. A., & Desch, L. W. (2007). Maltreatment of children with disabilities. Pediatrics, 119, 1018–1025. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-0565.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends in cognitive sciences, 8, 26–32. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., & Clements, J. (1995). Is it possible to assess the impact of abuse on children with pervasive developmental disorders? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25, 337–354. doi:10.1007/BF02179372.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., & Luxton, D. D. (2005). Vulnerability-stress models. In B. L. Hankin & J. R. Z. Abela (Eds.), Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability-stress perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansen, L. M., Gispen-de Wied, C. C., van der Gaag, R. J., & van Engeland, H. (2003). Differentiation between autism and multiple complex developmental disorder in response to psychosocial stress. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 582–590.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, C. R., Pickles, A., Falcaro, M., Marsden, A. J., Happé, F., Scott, S. K., et al. (2011). A multimodal approach to emotion recognition ability in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 275–285. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02328.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, C. M., & Kendall, P. C. (2012). The presentation and classification of anxiety in autism spectrum disorder. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19, 323–347. doi:10.1111/cpsp.12009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, C. M., Kendall, P. C., Berry, L., Souders, M. C., Franklin, M. E., Schultz, R. T., et al. (2014). Traditional and atypical presentations of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 2851–2861.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, C. M., Maddox, B. B., Kendall, P. C., Rump, K., Berry, L., Schultz, R. T., Souders, M. C., Bennett, A., Herrington, J., & Miller, J. (2015). Brief measures of anxiety in non-treatment seeking youth with autism spectrum disorder. Autism. Retrieved from http://aut.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/01/28/1362361314558465.full.pdf?ijkey=qrw3NRfmoZBjziz&keytype=finite.

  • Koenen, K. C., Moffitt, T. E., Poulton, R., Martin, J., & Caspi, A. (2007). Early childhood factors associated with the development of post-traumatic stress disorder: Results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Psychological Medicine, 37, 181–192. doi:10.1017/S0033291706009019.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, D. N., & Landolt, M. A. (2011). Characteristics and efficacy of early psychological interventions in children and adolescents after single trauma: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology,. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v2i0.7858.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1, 141–169. doi:10.1002/per.2410010304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lecavalier, L., Wood, J. J., Halladay, A. K., Jones, N. E., Aman, M. G., Cook, E. H., et al. (2014). Measuring anxiety as a treatment endpoint in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 1128–1143. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9165-9.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, L., Harrington, R. A., Chang, J. J., & Connors, S. L. (2008). Increased risk of injury in children with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 29, 247–255. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2007.05.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, S. E., Giarelli, E., Lee, L. C., Schieve, L. A., Kirby, R. S., Cunniff, C., et al. (2010). Autism spectrum disorder and co-occurring developmental, psychiatric, and medical conditions among children in multiple populations of the United States. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 31, 267–275.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leyfer, O. T., Folstein, S. E., Bacalman, S., Davis, N. O., Dinh, E., Morgan, J., & Lainhart, J. E. (2006). Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: Interview development and rates of disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 849–861. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0123-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lokhandwala, T., Khanna, R., & West-Strum, D. (2012). Hospitalization burden among individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 95–104. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1217-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mandell, D. S., Walrath, C. M., Manteuffel, B., Sgro, G., & Pinto-Martin, J. A. (2005). The prevalence and correlates of abuse among children with autism served in comprehensive community-based mental health settings. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29, 1359–1372. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.06.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mansell, S., Sobsey, D., & Moskal, R. (1998). Clinical findings among sexually abused children with and without developmental disabilities. Mental Retardation, 36, 12–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matson, J. L., & Nebel-Schwalm, M. S. (2007). Comorbid psychopathology with autism spectrum disorder in children: An overview. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 341–352. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2005.12.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazefsky, C. A., Herrington, J., Siegel, M., Scarpa, A., Maddox, B. B., Scahill, L., & White, S. W. (2013). The role of emotion regulation in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 679–688. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.006.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazefsky, C., Kao, J., & Oswald, D. (2011). Preliminary evidence suggesting caution in the use of psychiatric self-report measures with adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 164–174. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.03.006.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazefsky, C. A., Oswald, D. P., Day, T. N., Eack, S. M., Minshew, N. J., & Lainhart, J. E. (2012). ASD, a psychiatric disorder, or both? psychiatric diagnoses in adolescents with high-functioning ASD. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 516–523. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.686102.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazefsky, C. A., & White, S. W. (2014). Emotion regulation: Concepts and practice in autism spectrum disorder. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 23, 15–24. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2013.07.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDermott, S., Zhou, L., & Mann, J. (2008). Injury treatment among children with autism or pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 626–633. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0426-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehtar, M., & Mukaddes, N. M. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder in individuals with diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 539–546. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.06.020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mevissen, L., & De Jongh, A. (2010). PTSD and its treatment in people with intellectual disabilities: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 308–316. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.06.020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Steerneman, P., Merckelbach, H., Holdrinet, I., & Meesters, C. (1998). Comorbid anxiety symptoms in children with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 12, 387–393. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(98)00022-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newschaffer, C. J., Croen, L. A., Daniels, J., Giarelli, E., Grether, J. K., Levy, S. E., & Reaven, J. (2007). The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders. Annual Review of Public Health, 28, 235–258. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orsmond, G. I., Krauss, M. W., & Seltzer, M. M. (2004). Peer relationships and social and recreational activities among adolescents and adults with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 245–256. doi:10.1023/B:JADD.0000029547.96610.df.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Cook, I., Coon, H., Dawson, G., Joseph, R. M., Klin, A., et al. (2004). Performance on Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery subtests sensitive to frontal lobe function in people with autistic disorder: Evidence from the Collaborative Programs of Excellence in Autism network. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 139–150. doi:10.1023/B:JADD.0000022605.81989.cc.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 214, 55–70. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pugliese, C. E., & White, S. W. (2014). Brief report: Problem solving therapy in college students with autism spectrum disorders: Feasibility and preliminary efficacy. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 719–729. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1914-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiter, S., Bryen, D. N., & Shachar, I. (2007). Adolescents with intellectual disabilities as victims of abuse. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 11, 371–387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rieffe, C., Terwogt, M. M., & Kotronopoulou, K. (2007). Awareness of single and multiple emotions in high-functioning children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 455–465. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0171-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rump, K. M., Giovannelli, J. L., Minshew, N. J., & Strauss, M. S. (2009). The development of emotion recognition in individuals with autism. Child Development, 80, 1434–1447. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01343.x.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scahill, L. (2012). Commentary on Kerns and Kendall. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19(4), 348–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Peebles, C. D., Cook, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2001). Toward establishing procedural, criterion, and discriminant validity for PTSD in early childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 52–60. doi:10.1097/00004583-200101000-00016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Drell, M. J., & Larrieu, J. A. (1995). Two approaches to the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 191–200. doi:10.1097/00004583-199502000-00014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Myers, L., & Putnam, F. W. (2003). New findings on alternative criteria for PTSD in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 561–570. doi:10.1177/1744629507084602.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schilling, E. A., Aseltine, R. H., & Gore, S. (2007). Adverse childhood experiences and mental health in young adults: A longitudinal survey. BMC Public Health, 7, 30.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Settipani, C. A., Puleo, C. M., Conner, B. T., & Kendall, P. C. (2012). Characteristics and anxiety symptom presentation associated with autism spectrum traits in youth with anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 459–467. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.01.010.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sherin, J. E., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2011). Post-traumatic stress disorder: The neurobiological impact of psychological trauma. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 13, 263.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Charman, T., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., & Baird, G. (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 921–929. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318179964f.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P., Perrin, S., Dalgleish, T., Meiser-Stedman, R., Clark, D. M., & Yule, W. (2013). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 26, 66–72. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32835b2c01.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, L., & Peltz, L. (2008). Separation, autism, and residential treatment. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 26.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, N., Devereux, E., Wallace, A., Sundrum, R., Shenoy, M., Bacchus, C., & Logan, S. (2005). Disabling conditions and registration for child abuse and neglect: A population-based study. Pediatrics, 116, 609–613. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1882.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, N. R., Gerhart, J., Goldsmith, R. E., Heath, N. M., Chesney, S. A., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2013). Emotion regulation difficulties, low social support, and interpersonal violence mediate the link between childhood abuse and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 44, 152–161. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2012.09.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Storch, E. A., Sulkowski, M. L., Nadeau, J., Lewin, A. B., Arnold, E. B., Mutch, P. J., & Murphy, T. K. (2013). The phenomenology and clinical correlates of suicidal thoughts and behaviors in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 2450–2459. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1795-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. Retrieved July 2014, from http://store.samhsa.gov/product/SAMHSA-s-Concept-of-Trauma-and-Guidance-for-a-Trauma-Informed-Approach/SMA14-4884.

  • Sullivan, P. M., & Knutson, J. F. (2000). Maltreatment and disabilities: A population-based epidemiological study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24, 1257–1273. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00190-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tell, D., Davidson, D., & Camras, L. A. (2014). Recognition of emotion from facial expressions with direct or averted eye gaze and varying expression intensities in children with autism disorder and typically developing children. Autism Research and Treatment,. doi:10.1155/2014/816137.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tull, M. T., Barrett, H. M., McMillan, E. S., & Roemer, L. (2007). A preliminary investigation of the relationship between emotion regulation difficulties and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 38, 303–313. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.10.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, H. A., Finkelhor, D., & Ormrod, R. (2010). Poly-victimization in a national sample of children and youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 38, 323–330. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2009.11.012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tyrka, A., Burgers, D., Philip, N., Price, L., & Carpenter, L. (2013). The neurobiological correlates of childhood adversity and implications for treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 128, 434–447. doi:10.1111/acps.12143.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uljarevic, M., & Hamilton, A. (2013). Recognition of emotions in autism: A formal meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1517–1526. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1695-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valenti, M., Ciprietti, T., Di Egidio, C., Gabrielli, M., Masedu, F., Tomassini, A. R., & Sorge, G. (2012). Adaptive response of children and adolescents with autism to the 2009 earthquake in L’Aquila, Italy. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 954–960. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1323-9.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, Bessel. A., Roth, S., Pelcovitz, D., Sunday, S., & Spinazzola, J. (2005). Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 389–399. doi:10.1002/jts.20047.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Steensel, F. J., Bögels, S. M., & Perrin, S. (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 302–317. doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0097-0.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, S. W., Mazefsky, C. A., Dichter, G. S., Chiu, P. H., Richey, J. A., & Ollendick, T. H. (2014). Social-cognitive, physiological and neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation impairments: Understanding anxiety in autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 39, 22–36.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, S. W., & Roberson-Nay, R. (2009). Anxiety, social deficits, and loneliness in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1006–1013. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0713-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wicks, S., Hjern, A., Gunnell, D., Lewis, G., & Dalman, C. (2005). Social adversity in childhood and the risk of developing psychosis: A national cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1652–1657. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.9.1652.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, L. M., Kemp, A. H., Felmingham, K., Barton, M., Olivieri, G., Peduto, A., & Bryant, R. A. (2006). Trauma modulates amygdala and medial prefrontal responses to consciously attended fear. NeuroImage, 29, 347–357. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.03.047.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, J. J., & Gadow, K. D. (2010). Exploring the nature and function of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17, 281–292. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2010.01220.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R. (2001). Biology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 41–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zablotsky, B., Bradshaw, C. P., Anderson, C., & Law, P. A. (2013). The association between bullying and the psychological functioning of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 34, 1–8. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e31827a7c3a.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University, 3020 Market Street, Suite 560, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA

    Connor Morrow Kerns & Craig J. Newschaffer

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, PA, USA

    Steven J. Berkowitz

Authors
  1. Connor Morrow Kerns
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Craig J. Newschaffer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Steven J. Berkowitz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Connor Morrow Kerns.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kerns, C.M., Newschaffer, C.J. & Berkowitz, S.J. Traumatic Childhood Events and Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 45, 3475–3486 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2392-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2392-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation