Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Temperament and Sensory Features of Children with Autism

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study sought to characterize temperament traits in a sample of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), ages 3–7 years old, and to determine the potential association between temperament and sensory features in ASD. Individual differences in sensory processing may form the basis for aspects of temperament and personality, and aberrations in sensory processing may inform why some temperamental traits are characteristic of specific clinical populations. Nine dimensions of temperament from the Behavioral Style Questionnaire (McDevitt and Carey in Manual for the behavioral style questionnaire, Behavioral-Developmental Initiatives, Scottsdale, AZ, 1996) were compared among groups of children with ASD (n = 54), developmentally delayed (DD; n = 33), and the original normative sample of typically developing children (McDevitt and Carey in J Child Psychol Psychiatr 19(3):245–253, 1978; n = 350) using an ANOVA to determine the extent to which groups differed in their temperament profiles. The hypothesized overlap between three sensory constructs (hyperresponsiveness, hyporesponsivness, and seeking) and the nine dimensions of temperament was analyzed in children with ASD using regression analyses. The ASD group displayed temperament scores distinct from norms for typically developing children on most dimensions of temperament (activity, rhythmicity, adaptability, approach, distractibility, intensity, persistence, and threshold) but differed from the DD group on only two dimensions (approach and distractibility). Analyses of associations between sensory constructs and temperament dimensions found that sensory hyporesponsiveness was associated with slowness to adapt, low reactivity, and low distractibility; a combination of increased sensory features (across all three patterns) was associated with increased withdrawal and more negative mood. Although most dimensions of temperament distinguished children with ASD as a group, not all dimensions appear equally associated with sensory response patterns. Shared mechanisms underlying sensory responsiveness, temperament, and social withdrawal may be fruitful to explore in future studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, D. B., Hatton, D. D., Mesibov, G., Ament, N., & Skinner, M. (2000). Early development, temperament, and functional impairment in autism and fragile X syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(1), 49–59. doi:10.1023/A:1005412111706.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baranek, G. T. (1998). Tactile defensiveness and discrimination test: Revised. Unpublished Manuscript, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

  • Baranek, G. T. (1999). Sensory processing assessment for young children (SPA). Unpublished manuscript, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

  • Baranek, G. T. (2002). Efficacy of sensory and motor interventions for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(5), 397–422. doi:10.1023/A:1020541906063.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baranek, G. T., & Berkson, G. (1994). Tactile defensiveness in children with developmental disabilities: Responsiveness and habituation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(4), 457–471. doi:10.1007/BF02172128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baranek, G. T., Boyd, B. A., Poe, M. D., David, F. J., & Watson, L. R. (2007). Hyperresponsive sensory patterns in young children with autism, developmental delay, and typical development. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 112(4), 233–245. doi:10.1352/0895-8017(2007)112[233:HSPIYC]2.0.CO;2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baranek, G. T., David, F. J., Poe, M. D., Stone, W. L., & Watson, L. R. (2006). Sensory Experiences Questionnaire: Discriminating sensory features in young children with autism, developmental delays, and typical development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(6), 591–601. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01546.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H. A., Bullmore, E. T., Wheelwright, S., Ashwin, C., & Williams, S. C. R. (2000). The amygdala theory of autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(3), 355–364. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00011-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, C. T., & Gable, R. K. (2001). Ensuring content validity: An illustration of the process. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 9(2), 201–215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Sasson, A., Cermak, S. A., Orsmond, G. I., Tager-Flusberg, H., Carter, A. S., Kadlec, M. B., et al. (2007). Extreme sensory modulation behaviors in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61(5), 584–592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Sasson, A., Cermak, S., Orsmond, G., Tager-Flusberg, H., Kadlec, M., & Carter, A. (2008). Sensory clusters of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: Differences in affective symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(8), 817–825. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01899.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bieberich, A. A., & Morgan, S. B. (2004). Self-regulation and affective expression during play in children with autism or Down syndrome: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(4), 439–448. doi:0.1023/B:JADD.0000037420.16169.28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blue, C. L., Marrero, D. G., & Black, D. R. (2008). Physical activity belief scales for diabetes risk: Development and psychometric testing. Health Education & Behavior, 35(3), 316–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boström, P., Broberg, M., & Hwang, C. (2010). Different, difficult or distinct? Mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of temperament in children with and without intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(9), 806–819. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01309.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, B. A., Baranek, G. T., Sideris, J., Poe, M. D., Watson, L. R., Patten, E., et al. (2010). Sensory features and repetitive behaviors in children with autism and developmental delays. Autism Research, 3(2), 78–87. doi:10.1002/aur.124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carcani-Rathwell, I., Rabe-Hasketh, S., & Santosh, P. J. (2006). Repetitive and stereotyped behaviours in pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(6), 573–581. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01565.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1996). Temperament: Theory and practice. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalton, K. M., Nacewicz, B. M., Johnstone, T., Schaefer, H. S., Gernsbacher, M. A., Goldsmith, H., et al. (2005). Gaze fixation and the neural circuitry of face processing in autism. Nature Neuroscience, 8(4), 519–526. doi:10.1038/nn1421.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Meltzoff, A. N., Osterling, J., Rinaldi, J., & Brown, E. (1998). Children with autism fail to orient to naturally occurring social stimuli. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(6), 479–485. doi:10.1023/A:1026043926488.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Osterling, J., Rinaldi, J., Carver, L., & McPartland, J. (2001). Brief report: Recognition memory and stimulus-reward associations: Indirect support for the role of ventromedial prefrontal dysfunction in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(3), 337–341. doi:10.1023/A:1010751404865.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., & Watling, R. (2000). Interventions to facilitate auditory, visual, and motor integration in autism: A review of the evidence. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(5), 415–421. doi:10.1023/A:1005547422749.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Webb, S. J., Carver, L., Panagiotides, H., & McPartland, J. (2004). Young children with autism show atypical brain responses to fearful versus neutral facial expressions of emotion. Developmental Science, 7(3), 340–359. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00352.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, W. (1997). The impact of sensory processing abilities on the daily lives of young children and their families: A conceptual model. Infants and Young Children, 9, 23–35. doi:10.1097/00001163-199704000-00005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, W. (1999). Sensory profile. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, W. (2001). The sensations of everyday life: Empirical, theoretical, and pragmatic considerations. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55(6), 608–620. doi:10.5014/ajot.55.6.608.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaves, L. C., Ho, H. H., & Eaves, D. M. (1994). Subtypes of autism by cluster analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(1), 3–22. doi:10.1007/BF02172209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzner, K. (2007). Reliability and validity. The Diabetes Educator, 33(5), 775–780.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, N. A., & Polak, C. P. (2004). The role of sensory reactivity in understanding infant temperament. In R. DelCarmen-Wiggins & A. Carter (Eds.), Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental health assessment (pp. 105–119). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Smith, I. M., Brian, J., Roberts, W., et al. (2009). Temperament and its relationship to autistic symptoms in a high-risk infant sib cohort. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(1), 59–78. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9258-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez, C. R., & Baird, S. (2005). Identifying early indicators for autism in self-regulation difficulties. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(2), 106–116. doi:10.1177/10883576050200020101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, J., Moore, D. W., McGuire, F., & Stebbins, R. (2008). Development of the serious leisure inventory and measure. Journal of Leisure Research, 40, 47–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grandin, T. (2006). Stopping the constant stress: A personal account. In M. G. Baron, J. Groden, G. Groden & L. P. Lipsitt (Eds.), Stress and coping in autism (pp. 71–81). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

  • Grant, J. S., & Davis, L. L. (1997). Focus on quantitative methods. Selection and use of content experts for instrument development. Research in Nursing and Health, 20(3), 269–274.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, S. A., Ben-Sasson, A., Soto, T. W., & Carter, A. S. (2011). Anxiety and sensory over-responsivity in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: Bidirectional effects across time. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1–8. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1361-3.

  • Gueorguieva, R., & Krystal, J. H. (2004). Move over ANOVA: Progress in analyzing repeated-measures data and its reflection in papers published in the Archives of General Psychiatry. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(3), 310. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.3.310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatton, D. D., Bailey, D. B., Hargett-Beck, M. Q., Skinner, M., & Clark, R. D. (1999). Behavioral style of young boys with fragile X syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 41(9), 625–632. doi:10.1017/S0012162299001280.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hepburn, S. L., & Stone, W. L. (2006). Using Carey Temperament Scales to assess behavioral style in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(5), 637–642. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0110-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hilton, C. L., Harper, J. D., Kueker, R. H., Lang, A. R., Abbacchi, A. M., Todorov, A., et al. (2010). Sensory responsiveness as a predictor of social severity in children with high functioning autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(8), 937–945. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0944-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous child, 2(3), 217–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kientz, M. A., & Dunn, W. (1997). A comparison of the performance of children with and without autism on the Sensory Profile. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 51(7), 530–537.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landry, R., & Bryson, S. E. (2004). Impaired disengagement of attention in young children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(6), 1115–1122. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00304.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, A. E., Young, R. L., Baker, A. E. Z., & Angley, M. T. (2010). Sensory processing subtypes in autism: Association with adaptive behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(1), 112–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liss, M., Saulnier, C., Fein, D., & Kinsbourne, M. (2006). Sensory and attention abnormalities in autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, 10(2), 155–172. doi:10.1177/1362361306062021.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Little, L. M., Freuler, A. C., Houser, M. B., Guckian, L., Carbine, K., David, F. J., et al. (2011). Psychometric Validation of the Sensory Experiences Questionnaire. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65(2), 207–210. doi:10.1080/713671112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P. C., et al. (2000). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(3), 205–223. doi:10.1023/A:1005592401947.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Couteur, A. (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(5), 659–685. doi:10.1007/BF02172145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R. (1988). Child temperament and educational outcomes. In A. D. Pellegrini (Ed.), Psychological bases for early education (pp. 185–206). London: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin J. N., & Fox N. A. (2006). Temperament. In K. McCarney & D. Phillips (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of early childhood development (pp. 26–146). Malken, MA: Blackwell Publishing. doi:10.1002/9780470757703.ch7.

  • McDevitt, S. C., & Carey, W. B. (1978). The measurement of temperament in 3–7 year old children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19(3), 245–253. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1978.tb00467.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDevitt, S., & Carey, W. (1996). Manual for the behavioral style questionnaire. Scottsdale, AZ: Behavioral-Developmental Initiatives.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, E. L., Gray, K. M., Tonge, B. J., Sweeney, D. J., & Taffe, J. R. (2009). Factor analytic study of repetitive behaviours in young children with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(5), 765–774. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0680-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, S., & Lane, S. J. (2008). Diagnostic validity of sensory over-responsivity: A review of the literature and case reports. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(3), 516–529. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0418-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, D. L., Fein, D., Barton, M. L., & Green, J. A. (2001). The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers: An initial study investigating the early detection of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(2), 131–144. doi:10.1023/A:1010738829569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., Hepburn, S., & Wehner, E. (2003). Parent reports of sensory symptoms in toddlers with autism and those with other developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(6), 631–642. doi:10.1023/B:JADD.0000006000.38991.a7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbart, M. K., & Derryberry, D. (1981). Development of individual differences in temperament. In M. E. Lamb & A. L. Brown (Eds.), Advances in developmental psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 37–86). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Woolley, J., Nosarti, C., Heyman, I., Taylor, E., et al. (2006). Progressive increase of frontostriatal brain activation from childhood to adulthood during event-related tasks of cognitive control. Human Brain Mapping, 27(12), 973–993. doi:10.1002/hbm.20237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoen, S. A., Miller, L. J., & Green, K. E. (2008). Pilot study of the sensory over-responsivity scales: Assessment and inventory. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 62(4), 393–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schopler, E., Reichler, R. J., DeVellis, R. F., & Daly, K. (1980). Toward objective classification of childhood autism: Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 10(1), 91–103. doi:10.1007/BF02408436.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schulkin, J. (2007). Autism and the amygdala: An Endocrine hypothesis. Brain and Cognition, 65(1), 87–99. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2006.02.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, R. T. (2005). Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: The role of the amygdala and fusiform face area. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23(2–3), 125–141. doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.12.012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeten, T. L., Posey, D. J., Shekhar, A., & McDougle, C. J. (2002). The amygdala and related structures in the pathophysiology of autism. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 71(3), 449–455. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(01)00697-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Talay-Ongan, A., & Wood, K. (2000). Unusual sensory sensitivities in autism: A possible crossroads. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 47(2), 201–212. doi:10.1080/713671112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, A., Chess, A., & Birch, H. G. (1968). Temperament and behavior disorders in children. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, A., Chess, S., Birch, H. G., Hertzig, M. E., & Korn, S. (1963). Behavioral individuality in early childhood. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomchek, S. D., & Dunn, W. (2007). Sensory processing in children with and without autism: A comparative study using the short sensory profile. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61(2), 190–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. (1999). Annotation: Repetitive behaviour in autism: A review of psychological research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40(6), 839–849. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00502.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Geest, J., Kemner, C., Verbaten, M., & Van Engeland, H. (2002). Gaze behavior of children with pervasive developmental disorder toward human faces: A fixation time study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(5), 669–678. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00055.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkmar, F. R., Lord, C., Bailey, A., Schultz, R. T., & Klin, A. (2004). Autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(1), 135–170. doi:10.1097/00001504-199707000-00005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vuilleumier, P. (2005). How brains beware: Neural mechanisms of emotional attention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(12), 585–594. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.10.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watling, R. L., Deitz, J., & White, O. (2001). Comparison of Sensory Profile scores of young children with and without autism spectrum disorders. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55(4), 416–423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, L. R., Patten, E., Baranek, G. T., Poe, M., Boyd, B. A., Freuler, A., et al. (2011). Differential associations between sensory response patterns and social-communication measures in children with autism and developmental disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 54, 1562–1576. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2011/10-0029.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the families that participated in this study. This study was made possible by a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01-HD042168).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 8040, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    M. E. Brock & M. D. Poe

  2. Division of Occupational Science, Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-8040, USA

    A. Freuler & G. T. Baranek

  3. Division of Speech and Hearing Sciences, Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-8040, USA

    L. R. Watson

  4. Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    A. Sabatino

  5. Vanderbilt University, 230 Appleton Place, Peabody Box 228, Nashville, TN, 37203-5721, USA

    M. E. Brock

Authors
  1. M. E. Brock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. Freuler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. G. T. Baranek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. L. R. Watson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. M. D. Poe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. A. Sabatino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. E. Brock.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Brock, M.E., Freuler, A., Baranek, G.T. et al. Temperament and Sensory Features of Children with Autism. J Autism Dev Disord 42, 2271–2284 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1472-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1472-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation