Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Brief Report: Cognitive Flexibility and Focused Attention in Children and Adolescents with Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism as Measured on the Computerized Version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

  • Brief Report
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to assess mental flexibility and set maintenance of a group of individuals with Asperger syndrome (AS) or high-functioning autism (HFA) (N = 13; mean age 16,4), as compared with a matched group of typically developing children and adolescents (N = 13; mean age 15,6) on the computerized version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). The participants in the AS/HFA group performed less well than the controls on all categories of the WCST, but the differences did not reach conventional statistical significance on most categories of the WCST. On the category failure to maintain set, however, the AS/HFA participants performed significantly less well than the controls, suggesting a deficit of focused attention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Asperger, H. (1944/1991). Autistic Psychopathy. In Childhood (Frith, U., translation & annotation). In U. Frith (Ed.), Autism and Asperger syndrome (pp. 37–92). New York: Cambridge University Press (Original work published 1944).

  • Garretson, H. B., Fein, D., & Waterhouse, L. (1990). Sustained attention in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20, 101–114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heaton, R. K., Chelune, G. J., Talley, J. L., Kay, G. G., & Curtiss, G. (1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test manual: Revised and Expanded. Odessa. F. L. Psychological Assessment Resources.

  • Hill, E. (2004). Evaluating the theory of executive function in autism. Developmental Review, 24, 189–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, E., & Bird, C. M. (2006). Executive processes in Asperger syndrome: Patterns of performance in a multiple case series. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2822–2835.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., Russell, J., & Robbins, T. W. (1994). Evidence for executive dysfunction in autism. Neuropsychologia, 32, 477–492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaland, N., Møller-Nielsen A., Callesen, K., Mortensen, E. L., Gottlieb D., & Smith, L. (2002). A new ‘advanced’ test of theory of mind: Evidence from children and adolescents with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 517–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liss, M., Harel, B., Fein, D., Allen, D., Dunn, M., Feinstein, C., Morris, R., Waterhouse, L., & Rapin, I. (2001). Predictors and correlates of adaptive functioning in children with developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 219–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., Goode, S., Heemsbergen, J., Jordan, H., Manhood L., & Schopler, E. (1989). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: A standardized observation of communicative and social behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 19, 185–212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 659–685.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mcintosh, K. E., & Dissanayake, C. (2004). Annotation: The similarities and differences between autistic disorder and Aspergere´s disorder: A review of the empirical evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 421–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minshew, N. J., Goldstein, G., Muenz L. R., & Payton, L. R. (1992). Neuropsychological functioning in non-mentally retarded autistic individuals. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 14, 749–761.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, H. E. (1976). A modified card sorting test sensitive to frontal lobe defects. Cortex, 12, 313–324.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nyden, A., Gillberg, C., Hjelmquist, E., & Heimann, M. (1999). Executive/attention deficits in boys with Asperger syndrome, attention disorder, and reading/writing disorder. Autism, 3, 213–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S. (1997). Components of executive function in autism and other disorders. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 179–211). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Cook, I., Coon, H., Dawson, G., Joseph, R. M., Klin, A., McMahoon, W. M., Minshew, N., Munson, J. A., Pennington, B. F., Rogers, S. J., Spence, M. A., Tager-Flusberg, H., Volkmar, F. R., & Wrathall, D. (2004). Performance on Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery subtests sensitive to frontal lobe function in people with autistic disorder: Evidence from the collaborative programs of excellence in autism network. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 139–150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Goodlin-Jones, B. L., & Solomon, M. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 523–540.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., & Jensen, J. (1999). Brief report: Specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29, 171–177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., & McEvoy, R. E. (1994). A longitudinal study of executive function and theory of mind development in autism. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 415–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., & McMahon Griffith, E. (2000). Neuropsychological function and the external validity of Asperger syndrome. In A. Klin, F. R. Volkmar, & S. S. Sparrow (Eds.), Asperger syndrome (pp. 72–96). New York: Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1081–1105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 51–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, A. C., Robbins, T. W., & Weiskrantz, L. (1998). The prefrontal cortex. Executive and cognitive functions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, S. G., & Asarnow, R. F. (1987). A comparison of cognitive-neuropsychlogical impairment of nonretarded autistic and schizophrenic children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychlogy, 15, 29–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shu, C., Lung, W., Tien, A. Y., & Chen, C. (2001). Executive function deficits in non-retarded autistic children. Autism, 5, 165–174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T., & Knight, R. T. (2002). Principles of frontal lobe function. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T., Levine, B., Alexander, M. P., Hong, J., Palumbo, C., Hamer, L., Murphy, K. J., & Izukawa, D. (2000). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with focal frontal and posterior brain damage: Effects of lesion location and test structure on separable cognitive processes. Neuropsychologia, 38, 388–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. (1997). Towards an executive dysfunction account of repetitive behaviour in autism. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 57–100). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1998). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Danish translation and adaptation. Kopenhagen: Danish Psychological Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wellman, H., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory-of-mind development: The truth about false belief. Child Development, 72, 655–684.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (1993). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders. Diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva: Author.

Download references

Acknowledgments

Colleagues and mentors contributed to the work presented in this paper with ideas and discussions. Special thanks are given to Kirsten Callesen, Dorte Gottlieb and Annette Moller Nielsen for their enthusiastic and indefatigable effort in testing the children and adolescents. The kind involvement of the participants and their families is thankfully acknowledged. This work was supported by grants from the Norwegian Council for Research (to the first author).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Social Science, Lillehammer University College, Gudbrandsdalsvegen 350, Lillehammer, 2624, Norway

    Nils Kaland

  2. Institute of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Lars Smith

  3. Department of Health Psychology, Institute of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Erik Lykke Mortensen

Authors
  1. Nils Kaland
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lars Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erik Lykke Mortensen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nils Kaland.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kaland, N., Smith, L. & Mortensen, E.L. Brief Report: Cognitive Flexibility and Focused Attention in Children and Adolescents with Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism as Measured on the Computerized Version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. J Autism Dev Disord 38, 1161–1165 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0474-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0474-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation