Abstract
Background: The executive functions of inhibition, planning, flexible shifting of actions, and working memory are commonly reported to be impaired in neurodevelopmental disorders. Method: We compared these abilities in children (8–12 years) with high functioning autism (HFA, n = 17), attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD, n = 21) and healthy controls (n = 32). Response inhibition was assessed using the Stroop Color and Word Test (Golden, 1978). Problem solving, set-shifting, and nonverbal memory were assessed using three tasks, respectively, from the CANTAB® (Cambridge Cognition, 1996): the Stockings of Cambridge task; the Intra-Dimensional/Extra-Dimensional set-shifting task; and the Spatial Working Memory task (SWM) with tokens hidden behind 3, 4, 6, and 8 boxes. Results: There were no group differences on the response inhibition, planning, or set-shifting tasks. On the SWM task, children with HFA made significantly more between-searcherrors compared with controls on both the most difficult problems (8-box) and on the mid-difficulty problems (6-box); however, children with ADHD made significantly more errors compared to controls on the most difficult (8-box) problems only. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that spatial working memory is impaired in both ADHD and HFA, and more severely in the latter. More detailed investigation is needed to examine the mechanisms that differentially impair spatial working memory, but on this set of tasks there appears to be sparing of other executive functions in these neuropsychiatric developmental disorders.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
C. J. Aman R. J. Roberts B. F. Pennington (1998) ArticleTitleA neuropsychological examination of the underlying deficit in ADHD: The frontal lobe vs right parietal theories Developmental Psychology 34 956–969
R. A. Barkley (2000) ArticleTitleGenetics of childhood disorders: XVII. ADHD, Part 1: The executive functions and ADHD Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39 1064–1068
R. A. Barkley G. Grodzinsky G. J. DuPaul (1992) ArticleTitleFrontal lobe functions in attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity: A review and research report Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 20 163–188
L. Bennetto B. F. Pennington S. J. Rogers (1996) ArticleTitleIntact and impaired memory functions in autism Child Development 67 1816–1835
E. A. Berg (1948) ArticleTitleA simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking Journal of General Psychology 39 15–22
J. Biederman S. V. Faraone K. Keenan J. Benjamin B. Krifcher C. Moore S. Sprich Buckminster K. Ugaglia M. S. Jellinek R. Steingard (1992) ArticleTitleFurther evidence of family-genetic risk factors in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Archives of General Psychiatry 49 728–738
S. V. Borys H. Spitz B. A. Dorans (1982) ArticleTitleTower of Hanoi performance of retarded young adults and nonretarded children as a function of solution length and goal state Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 33 87–110
S. E. Bryson (1983) ArticleTitleInterference effects in autistic children: Evidence for the comprehension of single stimuli Journal of Abnormal Psychology 92 250–254
F. X. Castellanos F.F. Marvasti J. L. Ducharme J. M. Walter M. E. Israel A. Krain C. Pavlovsky D. W. Hommer (2000) ArticleTitleExecutive function oculomotor tasks in girls with ADHD Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39 644–650
InstitutionalAuthorNameCambridge Cognition Cognition (1996) CANTAB® Cambridge Cognition Limited Cambridge, England
J. Cohen P. Cohen S. G. West L. S. Aiken (2002) Applied multiple regression/correlation analyses in the behavioral sciences Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Mahwah New Jersey
C. K. Conners (1997) Conners’ rating scales-revised Multi-Health Systems, Inc North Tonawanda New York
C. S. Cox E. Chee G. A. Chase T. L. Baumgardner L. J. Schuerholz M. J. Reader J. Mohr M. B. Denckla (1997) ArticleTitleReading proficiency affects the construct validity of the Stroop test interference score The Clinical Neuropsychologist 11 105–110
L. E. Cutting C. W. Koth E. M. Mahone M. B. Denckla (2003) ArticleTitleEvidence for unexpected “difficulties in learning” in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) without reading disabilities (RD) Journal of Learning Disabilities 36 259–269
G. J. DuPaul (1991) ArticleTitleParent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms: Psychometric properties in a community based sample Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 20 243–253
G. A. Eskes S. E. Bryson T. A. McCormick (1990) ArticleTitleComprehension of concrete and abstract words in autistic children Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 20 61–73
S. V. Faraone J. Biederman W. J. Chen S. Milberger R. Warburton M. T. Tsuang (1995) ArticleTitleGenetic heterogeneity in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Gender, psychiatric comorbidity, and maternal ADHD Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104 334–345
M. C. Goldberg A. G. Lasker D. S. Zee E. Garth A. Tien R. J. Landa (2002) ArticleTitleEvidence for ocular motor abnormalities in autism Neuropsychologia 1426 1–11
C. J. Golden (1978) Stroop Color and Word test: Manual for clinical and experimental uses Stoelting Chicago
E. Gorenstein C. A. Mammato J. M. Sandy (1989) ArticleTitlePerformance of inattentive overactive children on selected measures of prefrontal-type function Journal of Clinical Psychology 45 619–632
L. M. Greenberg R. A. Leark T. R. Dupuy C. L. Corman C. L. Kindschi (1996) Tests of variables of attention (T.O.V.A.) Universal Attention Disorders, Inc Los Alamitos, CA
E. M. Griffith B. F. Pennington E. A. Wehner S. J. Rogers (1999) ArticleTitleExecutive functions in young children with autism Child Development 70 817–832
G. M. Grodzinsky R. Diamond (1992) ArticleTitleFrontal lobe functioning in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Developmental Neuropsychology 8 427–445
A. B. Hollingshead (1975) Four factor index of social status Yale University, Department of Sociology New Haven, CT
C. Hughes J. Russell T. W. Robbins (1994) ArticleTitleEvidence for executive function in autism Neuropsychologia 32 477–492
S. Kempton A. Vance P. Maruff E. Luk J. Costin C. Pantelis (1999) ArticleTitleExecutive function and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: stimulant medication and better executive func- tion performance in children Psychological Medicine 29 527–538
R. Klorman L. Hazel-Fernandez S. E. Shaywitz J. M. Fletcher K. E. Marchione J. M. Holahan K. Stuebing B. A. Shaywitz (1999) ArticleTitleExecutive functioning deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are independent of oppositional defiant or reading disorder Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 1148–1155
R. J. Landa and M. C. Goldberg (2005). Language and Executive Functions in High Functioning Autism: A continuum of impaired to enhanced performance. Journal of Autism and Developmental and Disorders
N. J. Minshew G. Goldstein L. R. Muenz J. B. Payton (1992) ArticleTitleNeuropsychological functioning in nonmentally retarded autistic individuals Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 14 749–761
N. J. Minshew G. Goldstein D. J. Siegel (1997) ArticleTitleNeuropsychologic functioning in autism: Profile of a complex information processing disorder Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 3 303–316
N. J. Minshew B. Luna J. A. Sweeney (1999) ArticleTitleOculomotor evidence for neocortical systems but not cerebellar dysfunction in autism Neurology 52 917–922
S. H. Mostofsky A. G. Lasker L. E. Cutting M. B. Denckla D. S. Zee (2001a) ArticleTitleOculomotor abnormalities in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A preliminary study Neurology 57 423–430
S. H. Mostofsky A. G. Lasker H. S. Singer M. B. Denckla D. S. Zee (2001b) ArticleTitleOculomotor abnormalities in boys with Tourette syndrome with and without ADHD Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 40 1464–1472
D. Munoz K. A. Hampton K. D. Moore J. E. Goldring (1999) Control of purposive saccadic eye movements and visual fixation in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Becker (Eds) Current Oculomotor Research Plenum Press New York 415–423
J. Nigg L. Blaskey C. Huang-Pollock M. Rappley (2002) ArticleTitleNeuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41 59–66
Ozonoff S., Cook I., Coon H., Dawson G., Joseph R., Klin A., McMahon W., Minshew N., Munson J., Pennington B., Rogers S., Spence M., Tager-Flusberg H., Volkmar F., & Wrathall D. (2004). Performance on Cambridge Neuropsychological Text Automated Battery subtests sensitive to frontal lobe function in people with autistic disorder: Evidence from the Collaborative Programs of Excellence in Autism network. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 139--150
S. Ozonoff J. Jensen (1999) ArticleTitleBrief report: Specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental dis-orders Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 29 171–177
S. Ozonoff R. E. McEvoy (1994) ArticleTitleA longitudinal study of executive function and theory of mind development in autism Development and Psychopathology 6 415–431
S. Ozonoff B. F. Pennington S. J. Rogers (1991) ArticleTitleExecutive function deficits in high functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 32 1081–1105
S. Ozonoff M. South J. N. Miller (2000) ArticleTitleDSM-IV-defined Asperger syndrome: Cognitive, behavioral and early history differentiation from high-functioning autism Autism 4 29–46
S. Ozonoff D. L. Strayer (1997) ArticleTitleInhibitory function in nonretarded children with autism Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 27 59–77
S. Ozonoff D. L. Strayer (2001) ArticleTitleFurther evidence of intact working memory in autism Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 31 257–263
S. Ozonoff D. L. Strayer W. M. McMahon F. Filloux (1994) ArticleTitleExecutive function abilities in autism and Tourette syndrome: An information processing approach Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 35 1015–1032
B. F. Pennington D. Groisser M. C. Welch (1993) ArticleTitleContrasting deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder versus reading disability Developmental Psychology 29 511–523
S. R. Pliszka M. Liotti M. G. Woldorff (2000) ArticleTitleInhibitory control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: event-related potentials identify the processing component and timing of an impaired right-frontal response-inhibition mechanism Biological Psychiatry 48 238–246
M. J. Reader E. L. Harris L. J. Schuerholz M. B. Denckla (1994) ArticleTitleAttention deficit hyperactivity disorder and executive dysfunction Developmental Neuropsychology 10 493–512
S. M. Reardon J. A. Naglieri (1992) ArticleTitlePASS cognitive processing characteristics of normal and ADHD males Journal of School Psychology 30 151–163
W. Reich Z. Welner B. Herjanic (1997) The diagnostic interview for children and adolescents-IV Multi-Health Systems North Tonawanda
R. G. Ross D. Hommer D. Breiger C. Varley A. Radant (1994) ArticleTitleEye movement task related to frontal lobe functioning in children with attention deficit disorder Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 33 869–874
J. Russell C. Jarrold B. Hood (1999) ArticleTitleTwo intact executive capacities in children with autism: Implications for the core executive dysfunctions in the disorder Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 29 103–112
J. Sargeant H. Guerts J. Oosterlaan (2002) ArticleTitleHow specific is a deficit of executive function for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? Behavioral Brain Research 130 3–28
R. Schachar G. D. Logan (1990) ArticleTitleImpulsivity and inhibitory control in normal development and childhood psychopathology Developmental Psychology 26 710–720
R. Schachar R. Tannock M. Mariott G. Logan (1995) ArticleTitleDeficient inhibitory control in attention deficit hyperactiv- ity disorder Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 23 311–347
K. L. Shue V. I. Douglas (1992) ArticleTitleAttention deficit hyperactivity disorder and the frontal lobe syndrome Brain and Cognition 20 104–124
J. R. Stroop (1935) ArticleTitleStudies of interference in serial verbal reactions Journal of Experimental Psychology 18 643–662
R. Tannock R. Martinussen J. Frijters (2000) ArticleTitleNaming speed performance and stimulant effects indicate effortful, semantic processing deficits in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 28 237–252
R. L. Thorndike E. Hagen J. Sattler (1985) Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, Fourth Edition The Riverside Publishing Company Itasca, IL
B. L. Trommer J. B. Hoeppner R. Lorber K. Armstrong (1988) ArticleTitleThe go-no-go paradigm in attention deficit disorder Annals of Neurology 24 610–614
M. Turner (1997) Towards an executive dysfunction account of repetitive behaviour in autism J. Russell (Eds) Autism as an executive function disorder Oxford University Press Oxford 57–100
D. Wechsler (1974) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised The Psychological Corporation San Antonio, TX
D. Wechsler (1991) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III The Psychological Corporation San Antonio, TX
L. Weyandt W. G. Willis (1994) ArticleTitleExecutive functions in school-aged children: Potential efficacy of tasks in discriminating clinical groups Developmental Neuropsychology 10 27–38
E. G. Willcutt B. F. Pennington R. Boada J. S. Ogline R. A. Tunick N. A. Chhabildas R. K. Olson (2001) ArticleTitleA companion of the cognitive deficits in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110 157–172
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Goldberg, M.C., Mostofsky, S., Cutting, L. et al. Subtle Executive Impairment in Children with Autism and Children with ADHD. J Autism Dev Disord 35, 279–293 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-3291-4
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-3291-4