Abstract
Developmental changes in adolescents’ relationships with parents and friends intertwine, but individual differences in these relationships are likely to emerge as not all adolescents develop similarly. Generalized anxiety symptoms may underlie these individual differences, as these symptoms have frequently been associated with interpersonal difficulties. This study examines relationship quality development with parents and friends in adolescents with low and high levels of generalized anxiety symptoms. A latent transition analysis was performed in a two-cohort five-wave study design covering ages 12 to 16 (n = 923, 50.8% males) and 16 to 20 (n = 390, 43.4% males). About one-third of adolescents with high levels of generalized anxiety symptoms perceived a turbulent relationship with both their parents and best friends, whereas only one-tenth of those with low levels of generalized anxiety symptoms did. Low levels as opposed to high levels of generalized anxiety symptoms predicted a twice as high likelihood to perceive harmonious relationships with both their parents and best friends. Nevertheless, adolescents with low and high levels of generalized anxiety symptoms exhibited similar trends in relationship development. Overall, our findings indicate that generalized anxiety symptoms are not deterministic markers for relationship difficulties as there were plenty of adolescents with high levels of generalized anxiety symptoms that experienced no relationship difficulties across adolescence.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
We refer to Text B of the supplemental material for further information regarding mean-level differences between adolescents’ relationship experiences with their parents and their friends.
We refer to Text C of the supplemental material for further a further explanation of the parent-oriented profile.
We also identified these patterns among adolescents with low and high levels of generalized anxiety symptoms.
References
Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02294359.
Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54(5), 317.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Birmaher, B., Khetarpal, S., Brent, D., Cully, M., Balach, L., Kaufman, J., & Neer, S. M. (1997). The screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 545–553. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018.
Bollen, K. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Borkovec, T. D., Alcaine, O., & Behar, E. S. (2004). Avoidance theory of worry and generalized anxiety disorder. In D. Mennin, R. Heimberg, & C. Turk (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 77–108). New York: Guilford Press.
Bowlby, J. (1978). Attachment theory and its therapeutic implications. Adolescent Psychiatry, 6, 5–33.
Branje, S. J. T., van Aken, M. A. G., & van Lieshout, C. F. M. (2002). Relational support in families with adolescents. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 351–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.16.3.351.
Cohen, J. R., Spiro, C. N., Young, J. F., Gibb, B. E., Hankin, B. L., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2015). Interpersonal risk profiles for youth depression: a person-centered, multi-wave, longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 1415–1426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0023-x.
Collins, L. M., & Lanza, S. T. (2010). Latent class and latent transition analysis: With applications in the social, behavioral, and health sciences. New York: Wiley.
Collins, W. A., & Luebker, C. (1994). Parent and adolescent expectancies: individual and relational significance. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1994(66), 65–80.
De Goede, I., Branje, S. J., Delsing, M. J. M. H., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009). Linkages over time between adolescents' relationships with parents and friends. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1304–1315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9403-2.
De Goede, I., Branje, S. J., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009a). Developmental changes and gender differences in adolescents' perceptions of friendships. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1105–1123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.03.002.
De Goede, I., Branje, S. J., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2009b). Developmental changes in adolescents’ perceptions of relationships with their parents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9286-7.
Ehrlich, K. B., Dykas, M. J., & Cassidy, J. (2012). Tipping points in adolescent adjustment: Predicting social functioning from adolescents' conflict with parents and friends. Journal of Family Psychology, 26, 776–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029868.
Erickson, T. M., & Newman, M. G. (2007). Interpersonal and emotional processes in generalized anxiety disorder analogues during social interaction tasks. Behavior Therapy, 38, 364–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.10.005.
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children's perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016.
Furman, W., & Collibee, C. (2016). The past is present: representations of parents, friends, and romantic partners predict subsequent romantic representations. Child Development, n/a-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12712.
Hadiwijaya, H., Klimstra, T. A., Vermunt, J. K., Branje, S. J. T., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2017). On the development of harmony, turbulence, and independence in parent–adolescent relationships: a five-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 1772–1788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0627-7.
Hale, W. W., Engels, R., & Meeus, W. (2006). Adolescent's perceptions of parenting behaviours and its relationship to adolescent generalized anxiety disorder symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.08.002.
Hale, W. W., Crocetti, E., Raaijmakers, Q. A., & Meeus, W. H. (2011). A meta-analysis of the cross-cultural psychometric properties of the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 80–90.
Hale, W. W., Klimstra, T. A., Branje, S. J., Wijsbroek, S. A., & Meeus, W. H. (2013). Is adolescent generalized anxiety disorder a magnet for negative parental interpersonal behaviors? Depression and Anxiety, 30, 849–856.
Helsen, M., Vollebergh, W., & Meeus, W. (2000). Social support from parents and friends and emotional problems in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 319–335.
Hollenstein, T., & Lougheed, J. P. (2013). Beyond storm and stress: typicality, transactions, timing, and temperament to account for adolescent change. American Psychologist, 68, 444–454. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033586.
Hox, J. J. (1999). A review of current software for handling missing data. Kwantitatieve methoden, 62, 123–138.
Kan, M. L., & McHale, S. M. (2007). Clusters and correlates of experiences with parents and peers in early adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 565–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00535.x.
Laursen, B., Furman, W., & Mooney, K. S. (2006). Predicting interpersonal competence and self-worth from adolescent relationships and relationship networks: variable-centered and person-centered perspectives. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly (1982-), 572–600.
Little, R. J. A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202.
Markiewicz, D., Lawford, H., Doyle, A. B., & Haggart, N. (2006). Developmental differences in adolescents’ and young adults’ use of mothers, fathers, best friends, and romantic partners to fulfill attachment needs. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 121–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-9014-5.
Meeus, W., Schoot, R., Hawk, S. T., Hale, W. W., & Branje, S. (2016). Direct aggression and generalized anxiety in adolescence: heterogeneity in development and intra-individual change. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 361–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0388-8.
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Mayer, B., & Prins, E. (2000). How serious are common childhood fears? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00204-6.
Nelemans, S. A., Hale, W. W., Branje, S. J., Raaijmakers, Q. A., Frijns, T., van Lier, P. A., & Meeus, W. H. (2014). Heterogeneity in development of adolescent anxiety disorder symptoms in an 8-year longitudinal community study. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 181–202.
Newman, M. G., & Llera, S. J. (2011). A novel theory of experiential avoidance in generalized anxiety disorder: a review and synthesis of research supporting a contrast avoidance model of worry. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 371–382.
Poulin, F., & Chan, A. (2010). Friendship stability and change in childhood and adolescence. Developmental Review, 30, 257–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.01.001.
Priest, J. B. (2013). Emotionally focused therapy as treatment for couples with generalized anxiety disorder and relationship distress. Journal of Couple and Relationship Therapy, 12, 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332691.2013.749763.
Ream, G. L., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2005). Reciprocal associations between adolescent sexual activity and quality of youth-parent interactions. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 171–179. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.171.
Russell, A., & Saebel, J. (1997). Mother–son, mother–daughter, father–son, and father–daughter: are they distinct relationships? Developmental Review, 17, 111–147. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.1996.0431.
Scharfstein, L., Alfano, C., Beidel, D., & Wong, N. (2011). Children with generalized anxiety disorder do not have peer problems, just fewer friends. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 42, 712–723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-011-0245-2.
Scholte, R. H. J., Van Lieshout, C. F. M., & Van Aken, M. A. G. (2001). Perceived relational support in adolescence: dimensions, configurations, and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00004.
Schwartz, S. E. O., Rhodes, J. E., Chan, C. S., & Herrera, C. (2011). The impact of school-based mentoring on youths with different relational profiles. Developmental Psychology, 47, 450–462. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021379.
Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. Annals of Statistics, 6, 461–464 citeulike-article-id:3835854.
Seiffge-Krenke, I., Overbeek, G., & Vermulst, A. (2010). Parent–child relationship trajectories during adolescence: longitudinal associations with romantic outcomes in emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.04.001.
Stice, E., Ragan, J., & Randall, P. (2004). Prospective relations between social support and depression: differential direction of effects for parent and peer support? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.113.1.155.
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
van Wel, F. (1994). "I count my parents among my best friends": youths' bonds with parents and friends in the Netherlands. Journal of Marriage and Family, 56, 835–843. https://doi.org/10.2307/353596.
Vermunt, J. K., & Magidson, J. (2013). Latent GOLD 5.0 Upgrade Manual.
Vermunt, J. K., Tran, B., & Magidson, J. (2008). Latent class models in longitudinal research. In S. Menard (Ed.), Handbook of longitudinal research: design, measurement, and analysis (pp. 373–385). Burlington: Elsevier.
Way, N., & Greene, M. L. (2006). Trajectories of perceived friendship quality during adolescence: the patterns and contextual predictors. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 293–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00133.x.
Wray-Lake, L., Syvertsen, A. K., & Flanagan, C. A. (2016). Developmental change in social responsibility during adolescence: an ecological perspective. Developmental Psychology, 52, 130–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000067.
Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985). Adolescent relations with mothers, fathers, and friends. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Funding
This study was funded by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
The local review board of the Institute for the Study of Education and Human Development has approved this project.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 25 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hadiwijaya, H., Klimstra, T.A., Vermunt, J.K. et al. Perceived Relationship Development in Anxious and Non-Anxious Adolescents: a Person-Centered Five-Wave Longitudinal Study. J Abnorm Child Psychol 47, 499–513 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0452-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0452-4