Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Preschool Neuropsychological Measures as Predictors of Later Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study examined preschool neuropsychological measures as predictors of school-age attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Participants included 168 children (91 males) who completed neuropsychological measures at ages 3 and 4, and who were evaluated for ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder at age 6. The Conners’ Kiddie Continuous Performance Test (K-CPT), NEPSY Statue subtest, and a delay aversion task significantly distinguished at-risk children who later did and did not meet criteria for ADHD, with poor to fair overall predictive power, specificity, and sensitivity. However, only the K-CPT ADHD Confidence Index and battery added incremental predictive validity beyond early ADHD symptoms. This battery approach, which required impairment on at least 2 of the 3 significant measures, yielded fair overall predictive power, specificity, and sensitivity, and correctly classified 67 % of children. In addition, there was some support for the specificity hypothesis, with evidence that cool executive function measures (K-CPT and Statue subtest) tended to predict inattentive symptoms. These findings suggest that neuropsychological deficits are evident by preschool-age in children with ADHD, but neuropsychological tests may still misclassify approximately one-third of children if used alone. Thus, neuropsychological measures may be a useful component of early ADHD assessments, but should be used with caution and in combination with other assessment methods.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Numerical Memory II which involves repeating digits backwards was administered to children; however, the majority of children were not able to successfully complete any items, so only part 1 was used.

  2. We chose these cutoffs as they balanced specificity and sensitivity. However, we also explored clinical cutoffs (scaled score of 7) for the four subtests (three NEPSY subtests and K-ABC Hand Movement) that have them. In each case even though OPP was similar to the OPP for the cutoffs we used, there was an imbalance between specificity (0.89–0.97) and sensitivity (0.08–0.18).

  3. The group of children who were not able to complete each measure was compared to the group of children who successfully completed the measure on T4 inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms. Children who completed the KABC Hand Movement subtest had significantly higher hyperactive/impulsive symptoms (4.02) than children who did not complete this subtest (3.00), t(161) = 2.14, p = 0.03. For all other measures, children who did and did not complete the measure did not differ on ADHD symptoms, all ps > 0.07.

  4. None of the individual indicators that comprise the K-CPT ADHD Confidence Index significantly predicted whether at-risk children later met criteria for ADHD. Additionally, each indicator alone displayed poor sensitivity, specificity, NPP, PPP, and OPP (values range from 0.39 to 0.57). This is likely because aggregating measures (e.g., combining measures to create the Confidence Index) often increases reliability and validity.

References

  • American Academy of Pediatrics. (2011). Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management. ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 128, 1007–1022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th Edition: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Applegate, B., Lahey, B. B., Hart, E. L., Biederman, J., Hynd, G. W., Barkley, R. A., & Shaffer, D. (1997). Validity of the age-of-onset criterion for ADHD: a report from the DSM-IV field trials. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1211–1221. doi:10.1097/00004583-199709000-00013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., & Murphy, K. R. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A clinical workbook. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, R., Maruff, P., & Vance, A. (2009). Neurocognitive function in attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder with and without comorbid disruptive behaviour disorders. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 722–730. doi:10.1080/00048670903001927.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bendiksen, B., Svensson, E., Aase, H., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Friis, S., Myhre, A. M., & Zeiner, P. (2014). Co-occurrence of ODD and CD in preschool children with symptoms of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 1, 1–12. doi:10.1177/1087054714538655.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, L., Bohlin, G., & Rydell, A. M. (2003). Relations between inhibition, executive functioning, and ADHD symptoms: a longitudinal study from age 5 to 8½ years. Child Neuropsychology, 9, 255–266. doi:10.1076/chin.9.4.255.23519.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, L., Bohlin, G., Nyberg, L., & Janols, L. O. (2004). How well do measures of inhibition and other executive functions discriminate between children with ADHD and controls? Child Neuropsychology, 10, 1–13. doi:10.1076/chin.10.1.1.26243.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bohlin, G., Eninger, L., Brocki, K. C., & Thorell, L. B. (2012). Disorganized attachment and inhibitory capacity: predicting externalizing problem behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 449–458. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9574-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brocki, K. C., Nyberg, L., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2007). Early concurrent and longitudinal symptoms of ADHD and ODD: relations to different types of inhibitory control and working memory. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1033–1041. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01811.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brocki, K. C., Eninger, L., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2010). Interrelations between executive function and symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity and inattention in preschoolers: a two year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 163–171. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9354-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., & von Stauffenberg, C. (2009). Delay and inhibition as early predictors of ADHD symptoms in third grade. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 1–15. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9270-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Milham, M. P., & Tannock, R. (2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD: beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 117–123. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.01.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chhabildas, N., Pennington, B. F., & Willcutt, E. G. (2001). A comparison of the neuropsychological profiles of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 529–540. doi:10.1023/A:1012281226028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, C., Prior, M., & Kinsella, G. J. (2000). Do executive function deficits differentiate between adolescents with ADHD and oppositional defiant/conduct disorder? A neuropsychological study using the six elements test and Hayling sentence completion test. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 403–414. doi:10.1023/A:1005176320912.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K., & Staff, M. (2001). Conners’ Kiddie continuous performance test (K-CPT): Computer program for windows technical guide and software manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dougherty, L. R., Bufferd, S. J., Carlson, G. A., Dyson, M., Olino, T. M., Durbin, C. E., & Klein, D. N. (2011). Preschoolers’ observed temperament and psychiatric disorders assessed with a parent diagnostic interview. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 295–306. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.546046.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Doyle, A., Ostrander, R., Skare, S., Crosby, R. D., & August, G. J. (1997). Convergent and criterion-related validity of the behavior assessment system for children-parent rating scale. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 276–284. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2603_6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doyle, A. E., Biederman, J., Seidman, L. J., Weber, W., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Diagnostic efficiency of neuropsychological test scores for discriminating boys with and without attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 477–488. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.3.477.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grodzinsky, G. M., & Barkley, R. A. (1999). The predictive power of frontal lobe tests for the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 13, 12–21. doi:10.1076/clin.13.1.12.1983.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, R., Kar, B. R., & Srinivasan, N. (2011). Cognitive-motivational deficits in ADHD: development of a classification system. Child Neuropsychology, 17, 67–81. doi:10.1080/09297049.2010.524152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, J. B., Reddy, L. A., Decker, S. L., Thompson, R., Henzel, J., Teodori, A., & Denckla, M. B. (2009). Development and validation of an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) executive function and behavior rating screening battery. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31, 897–912. doi:10.1080/13803390802687423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, E. A., Youngwirth, S. D., Thakar, D. A., & Errazuriz, P. A. (2009). Predicting attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder from preschool diagnostic assessments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 349–354. doi:10.1037/a0014638.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Healey, D. M., Marks, D. J., & Halperin, J. M. (2011). Examining the interplay among negative emotionality, cognitive functioning, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom severity. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17, 502–510. doi:10.1017/S1355617711000294.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrett, M. A., Gilpin, A. T., Pierucci, J. M., & Rondon, A. T. (2015). Cognitive and reactive control processes: associations with ADHD symptoms in preschoolers. International Journal of Behavioral Development. doi:10.1177/0165025415575625. Advance online publication.

  • Jennings, J. R., van der Molen, M. W., Pelham, W., Debski, K. B., & Hoza, B. (1997). Inhibition in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder as indexed by heart rate change. Developmental Psychology, 33, 308–318. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.2.308.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalff, A. C., Hendriksen, J. G., Kroes, M., Vles, J. S., Steyaert, J., Feron, F. J., & Jolles, J. (2002). Neurocognitive performance of 5-and 6-year-old children who met criteria for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder at 18 months follow-up: results from a prospective population study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 589–598. doi:10.1023/A:1020859629994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalff, A. C., De Sonneville, L. M., Hurks, P. P., Hendriksen, J. G., Kroes, M., Feron, F. J., & Jolles, J. (2005). Speed, speed variability, and accuracy of information processing in 5 to 6-year-old children at risk of ADHD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 173–183. doi:10.1017/S1355617705050216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., & Kamphaus, R. W. (1984). Factor analysis of the Kaufman assessment battery for children (K-ABC) for ages 2½ through 12½ years. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 623–637. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.76.4.623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (1983). K-ABC: Kaufman assessment battery for children: Interpretive manual. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, L., Zieren, N., Zotter, S., Karall, D., Scholl-Bürgi, S., Haberlandt, E., & Fimm, B. (2010). Predictive validity of attentional functions in differentiating children with and without ADHD: a componential analysis. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 52, 371–378. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03560.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kochanska, G., Murray, K., Jacques, T. Y., Koenig, A. L., & Vandegeest, K. A. (1996). Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization. Child Development, 67, 490–507. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01747.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (1998). NEPSY: A developmental neuropsychological assessment. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Kipp, H., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S. S., & Massetti, G. (2004). Three-year predictive validity of DSM-IV attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children diagnosed at 4–6 years of age. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 2014–2020. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.11.2014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Lee, S. S., & Willcutt, E. (2005). Instability of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD from preschool through elementary school. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 896–902. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.8.896.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, D. W., Ball, J. D., Keats, M., Stutts, M. L., Spain, E. H., Janda, L., & Janusz, J. (1999). Neuropsychological performance of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): diagnostic classification estimates for measures of frontal lobe/executive functioning. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5, 222–233. doi:10.1017/S1355617799533055.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martel, M. M., Nigg, J. T., & Von Eye, A. (2009). How do trait dimensions map onto ADHD symptom domains? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 337–348. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9255-3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Martel, M. M., Roberts, B., Gremillion, M., von Eye, A., & Nigg, J. T. (2011). External validation of bifactor model of ADHD: explaining heterogeneity in psychiatric comorbidity, cognitive control, and personality trait profiles within DSM-IV ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 1111–1123. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9538-y.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Martel, M. M., Roberts, B., & Gremillion, M. L. (2013). Emerging control and disruptive behavior disorders during early childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 38, 153–166. doi:10.1080/87565641.2012.758731.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mash, E. J., & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.). (2006). Treatment of childhood disorders. New York: Guilford press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, D. (1972). McCarthy scales of children’s abilities. New York: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, C. J., Miller, S. R., Healey, D. M., Marshall, K., & Halperin, J. M. (2013). Are cognitive control and stimulus-driven processes differentially linked to inattention and hyperactivity in preschoolers? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42, 187–196. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.759116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munkvold, L. H., Manger, T., & Lundervold, A. J. (2014). Conners’ continuous performance test (CCPT-II) in children with ADHD/ODD, or a combined ADHD/ODD diagnosis. Child Neuropsychology, 20, 106–126. doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.753997.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (2005). Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1424–1435. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Hinshaw, S. P., Carte, E. T., & Treuting, J. J. (1998). Neuropsychological correlates of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: explainable by comorbid disruptive behavior or reading problems? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 468–480. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.3.468.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nock, M. K., Kazdin, A. E., Hiripi, E., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). Lifetime prevalence, correlates, and persistence of oppositional defiant disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 48, 703–713. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01733.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pauli-Pott, U., & Becker, K. (2011). Neuropsychological basic deficits in preschoolers at risk for ADHD: a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 626–637. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.02.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perugini, E. M., Harvey, E. A., Lovejoy, D. W., Sandstrom, K., & Webb, A. H. (2000). The predictive power of combined neuropsychological measures for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. Child Neuropsychology, 6, 101–114. doi:10.1076/chin.6.2.101.7059.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qian, Y., Shuai, L., Cao, Q., Chan, R. C., & Wang, Y. (2010). Do executive function deficits differentiate between children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ADHD comorbid with oppositional defiant disorder? A cross-cultural study using performance-based tests and the behavior rating inventory of executive function. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 24, 793–810. doi:10.1080/13854041003749342.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rajendran, K., Rindskopf, D., O’Neill, S., Marks, D. J., Nomura, Y., & Halperin, J. M. (2013). Neuropsychological functioning and severity of ADHD in early childhood: a four-year cross-lagged study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 1179–1188. doi:10.1037/a0034237.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). BASC: Behavior assessment system for children: Manual. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoemaker, K., Mulder, H., Deković, M., & Matthys, W. (2013). Executive functions in preschool children with externalizing behavior problems: a meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 457–471. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9684-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38. doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shuai, L., Chan, R. K., & Wang, Y. (2011). Executive function profile of Chinese boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: different subtypes and comorbidity. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 26, 120–132. doi:10.1093/arclin/acq101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sjöwall, D., Bohlin, G., Rydell, A. M., & Thorell, L. B. (2015). Neuropsychological deficits in preschool as predictors of ADHD symptoms and academic achievement in late adolescence. Child Neuropsychology, 1–18. doi: 10.1080/09297049.2015.1063595.

  • Skogan, A. H., Zeiner, P., Egeland, J., Rohrer-Baumgartner, N., Urnes, A., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., & Aase, H. (2014). Inhibition and working memory in young preschool children with symptoms of ADHD and/or oppositional-defiant disorder. Child Neuropsychology, 20, 607–624. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.838213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. S. (2005). Causal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from common simple deficits to multiple developmental pathways. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1231–1238. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van der Meere, J., Marzocchi, G., & De Meo, T. (2005). Response inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional defiant disorder screened from a community sample. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 459–472. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2801_1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Lieshout, M., Luman, M., Buitelaar, J., Rommelse, N. J., & Oosterlaan, J. (2013). Does neurocognitive functioning predict future or persistence of ADHD? A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 539–560. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.02.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Stauffenberg, C., & Campbell, S. B. (2007). Predicting the early developmental course of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 536–552. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2007.06.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wada, N., Yamashita, Y., Matsuishi, T., Ohtani, Y., & Kato, H. (2000). The test of variables of attention (TOVA) is useful in the diagnosis of Japanese male children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Brain & Development, 22, 378–382. doi:10.1016/S0387-7604(00)00168-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wåhlstedt, C., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2008). ADHD symptoms and executive function impairment: early predictors of later behavioral problems. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33, 160–178. doi:10.1080/87565640701884253.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1336–1346. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Youngwirth, S. D., Harvey, E. A., Gates, E. C., Hashim, R. L., & Friedman-Weieneth, J. L. (2007). Neuropsychological abilities of preschool-aged children who display hyperactivity and/or oppositional-defiant behavior problems. Child Neuropsychology, 13, 422–443. doi:10.1080/1382558060102589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank James Nightingale for his contributions to this project.

This research was supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (MH60132) awarded to the third author.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Tobin Hall, 135 Hicks Way, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA

    Rosanna P. Breaux, Shayl F. Griffith & Elizabeth A. Harvey

Authors
  1. Rosanna P. Breaux
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shayl F. Griffith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Elizabeth A. Harvey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth A. Harvey.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the University of Massachusetts Amherst institutional review board and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all parents included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Breaux, R.P., Griffith, S.F. & Harvey, E.A. Preschool Neuropsychological Measures as Predictors of Later Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol 44, 1455–1471 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0140-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0140-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation