Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Amblyopia: a mini review of the literature

  • Review
  • Published:
International Ophthalmology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Amblyopia is a form of cerebral visual impairment in the absence of an organic cause. It is considered to derive from the degradation of the retinal image associated with abnormal visual experience during the developmental period of the visual system in infancy and early childhood. Amblyopia is a significant cause of unilateral visual deficit in childhood and is still considered as one of the most common causes of persistent unilateral visual impairment in adulthood. The following review aims at presenting the contemporary literature regarding the prevalence, the aetiology, the neural correlates, the period of critical development, the treatment, the prognosis and the disability associated with this visual deficit.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Webber AL, Wood J (2005) Amblyopia: prevalence, natural history, functional effects and treatment. Clin Exp Optom 88:365–375

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Ohlsson J (2005) Defining amblyopia: the need for a joint classification. Strabismus 13:15–20

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Matsuo T, Matsuo C, Matsuoka H, Kio K (2007) Detection of strabismus and amblyopia in 1.5- and 3-year-old children by a preschool vision-screening program in Japan. Acta Med Okayama 61:9–16

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Matsuo T, Matsuo C (2007) Comparison of prevalence rates of strabismus and amblyopia in Japanese elementary school children between the years 2003 and 2005. Acta Med Okayama 61:329–334

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Lim HT, Yu YS, Park SH, Ahn H, Kim S, Lee M et al (2004) The Seoul Metropolitan Preschool Vision Screening Programme: results from South Korea. Br J Ophthalmol 88:929–933

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Gronlund MA, Andersson S, Aring E, Hard AL, Hellstrom A (2006) Ophthalmological findings in a sample of Swedish children aged 4–15 years. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 84:169–176

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Robaei D, Kifley A, Rose KA, Mitchell P (2008) Impact of amblyopia on vision at age 12 years: findings from a population-based study. Eye 22:496–502

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Robaei D, Rose KA, Ojaimi E, Kifley A, Martin FJ, Mitchell P (2006) Causes and associations of amblyopia in a population-based sample of 6-year-old Australian children. Arch Ophthalmol 124:878–884

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. He M, Huang W, Zheng Y, Huang L, Ellwein LB (2007) Refractive error and visual impairment in school children in rural southern China. Ophthalmology 114:374–382

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Donnelly UM, Stewart NM, Hollinger M (2005) Prevalence and outcomes of childhood visual disorders. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 12:243–250

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kvarnstrom G, Jakobsson P, Lennerstrand G (2001) Visual screening of Swedish children: an ophthalmological evaluation. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 79:240–244

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Sapkota YD, Adhikari BN, Pokharel GP, Poudyal BK, Ellwein LB (2008) The prevalence of visual impairment in school children of upper-middle socioeconomic status in Kathmandu. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 15:17–23

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Williams C, Northstone K, Howard M, Harvey I, Harrad RA, Sparrow JM (2008) Prevalence and risk factors for common vision problems in children: data from the ALSPAC study. Br J Ophthalmol 92:959–964

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Preslan MW, Novak A (1996) Baltimore Vision Screening Project. Ophthalmology 103:105–109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Preslan MW, Novak A (1998) Baltimore Vision Screening Project. Phase 2. Ophthalmology 105:150–153

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Gilbert CE, Ellwein LB (2008) Refractive Error Study in Children Study Group. Prevalence and causes of functional low vision in school-age children: results from standardized population surveys in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 49:877–881

    Google Scholar 

  17. Multi-ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study Group (2008) Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus in African American and Hispanic children ages 6 to 72 months the multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease study. Ophthalmology 115:1229–1236

    Google Scholar 

  18. Rosman M, Wong TY, Koh CL, Tan DT (2005) Prevalence and causes of amblyopia in a population-based study of young adult men in Singapore. Am J Ophthalmol 140:551–552

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Vinding T, Gregersen E, Jensen A, Rindziunski E (1991) Prevalence of amblyopia in old people without previous screening and treatment. An evaluation of the present prophylactic procedures among children in Denmark. Acta Ophthalmol (Cph) 69:796–798

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Brown SA, Weih LM, Fu CL, Dimitrov P, Taylor HR, McCarty CA (2000) Prevalence of amblyopia and associated refractive errors in an adult population in Victoria, Australia. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 7:249–258

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Attebo K, Mitchell P, Cumming R, Smith W, Jolly N, Sparkes R (1998) Prevalence and causes of amblyopia in an adult population. Ophthalmology 105:154–159

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Kessel L, Hougaard JL, Mortensen C, Jorgensen T, Lund-Andersen H, Larsen M (2004) Visual acuity and refractive errors in a suburban Danish population: Inter99 Eye Study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 82:19–24

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Hansen E, Flage T, Rosenberg T, Rudanko SL, Viggosson G, Riise R (1992) Visual impairment in Nordic children. III. Diagnoses. Acta Ophthalmol (Cph) 70:597–604

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Naidoo KS, Raghunandan A, Mashige KP, Govender P, Holden BA, Pokharel GP et al (2003) Refractive error and visual impairment in African children in South Africa. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 44:3764–3770

    Google Scholar 

  25. Bogdanici C, Lupascu C, Ciobanu C, Preutesi A, Postolache C (2003) Visual screening to discover ophthalmologic disorders in children. Oftalmologia 58:45–51

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Fu P, Yang L, Bo SY, Na X (2004) A national survey on low vision and blindness of 0–6 years old children in China. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 84:1545–1548

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Robaei D, Huynh SC, Kifley A, Mitchell P (2006) Correctable and non-correctable visual impairment in a population-based sample of 12-year-old Australian children. Am J Ophthalmol 142:112–118

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Rahi JS, Sripathi S, Gilbert CE, Foster A (1995) Childhood blindness in India: causes in 1318 blind school students in nine states. Eye 9:545–550

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Zhang SY, Zou LH, Gao YQ, Di Y, Wang XD (1992) National epidemiological survey of blindness and low vision in China. Chin Med J (Engl) 105:603–608

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Tabbara KF, Ross-Degnan D (1986) Blindness in Saudi Arabia. JAMA 255:3378–3384

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Shahriari HA, Izadi S, Rouhani MR, Ghasemzadeh F, Maleki AR (2007) Prevalence and causes of visual impairment and blindness in Sistan-va-Baluchestan Province, Iran: Zahedan Eye Study. Br J Ophthalmol 91:579–584

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Fotouhi A, Hashemi H, Mohammad K, Jalali KH, Tehran Eye Study (2004) The prevalence and causes of visual impairment in Tehran: the Tehran Eye Study. Br J Ophthalmol 88:740–745

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Jakobsson P, Kvarnstrom G, Abrahamsson M, Bjernbrink-Hornblad E, Sunnqvist B (2002) The frequency of amblyopia among visually impaired persons. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 80:44–46

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Buch H, Vinding T, La Cour M, Nielsen NV (2001) The prevalence and causes of bilateral and unilateral blindness in an elderly urban Danish population. The Copenhagen City Eye Study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 79:441–449

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Wang JJ, Foran S, Mitchell P (2000) Age-specific prevalence and causes of bilateral and unilateral visual impairment in older Australians: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 28:268–273

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Saw SM, Husain R, Gazzard GM, Koh D, Widjaja D, Tan DT (2003) Causes of low vision and blindness in rural Indonesia. Br J Ophthalmol 87:1075–1078

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Gunnlaugsdottir E, Arnarsson A, Jonasson F (2008) Prevalence and causes of visual impairment and blindness in Icelanders aged 50 years and older: the Reykjavik Eye Study. Acta Ophthalmol 86:778–785

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Castanes MS (2003) Major review: the underutilization of vision screening (for amblyopia, optical anomalies and strabismus) among preschool age children. Binocul Vis Strabismus Q 18:217–232

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. LaRoche GR (2000) Detection, prevention, and rehabilitation of amblyopia. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 11:306–309

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Lennerstrand G, Jakobsson P, Kvarnstrom G (1995) Screening for ocular dysfunction in children: approaching a common program. Acta Ophthalmol Scand Suppl 214:26–38 (discussion 39–40)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Powell C, Porooshani H, Bohorquez MC, Richardson S (2005) Screening for amblyopia in childhood. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3:CD005020

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Simons K (1996) Preschool vision screening: rationale, methodology and outcome. Surv Ophthalmol 41:3–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Williams C, Harrad RA, Harvey I, Sparrow JM, ALSPAC Study Team (2001) Screening for amblyopia in preschool children: results of a population-based, randomised controlled trial. ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 8:279–295

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Kvarnstrom G, Jakobsson P, Lennerstrand G (1998) Screening for visual and ocular disorders in children, evaluation of the system in Sweden. Acta Paediatr 87:1173–1179

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Eibschitz-Tsimhoni M, Friedman T, Naor J, Eibschitz N, Friedman Z (2000) Early screening for amblyogenic risk factors lowers the prevalence and severity of amblyopia. J AAPOS 4:194–199

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Williamson TH, Andrews R, Dutton GN, Murray G, Graham N (1995) Assessment of an inner city visual screening programme for preschool children. Br J Ophthalmol 79:1068–1073

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Bishop AM (1991) Vision screening of children: a review of methods and personnel involved within the UK. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 11:3–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Speeg-Schatz C, Lobstein Y, Burget M, Berra O, Riehl C, Hoffmann C (2004) A review of preschool vision screening for strabismus and amblyopia in France: 23 years experience in the Alsace region. Binocul Vis Strabismus Q 19:151–158

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Clarke MP (2004) Amblyopia. Focus (occasional update from the Royal College of Ophthalmologists) 32:1–2

  50. Hess RF (2001) Amblyopia: site unseen. Clin Exp Optom 84:321–336

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Barrett BT, Bradley A, McGraw PV (2004) Understanding the neural basis of amblyopia. Neuroscientist 10:106–117

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Kiorpes L, McKee SP (1999) Neural mechanisms underlying amblyopia. Curr Opin Neurobiol 9:480–486

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Kanski JJ (2003) Clinical ophthalmology: a systematic approach, 5th edn. Butterworth-Heinemann Medical, pp 522–523

  54. Wiesel TN, Hubel DH (1963) Single-cell responses in striate cortex of kittens deprived of vision in one eye. J Neurophysiol 26:1003–1017

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Hubel DH, Wiesel TN (1977) Ferrier lecture. Functional architecture of macaque monkey visual cortex. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 198:1–59

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Hubel DH, Wiesel TN, LeVay S (1977) Plasticity of ocular dominance columns in monkey striate cortex. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 278:377–409

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Kiorpes L, Kiper DC, O’Keefe LP, Cavanaugh JR, Movshon JA (1998) Neuronal correlates of amblyopia in the visual cortex of macaque monkeys with experimental strabismus and anisometropia. J Neurosci 18:6411–6424

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Chino YM, Cheng H, Smith EL III, Garraghty PE, Roe AW (1994) Early discordant binocular vision disrupts signal transfer in the lateral geniculate nucleus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:6938–6942

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Barnes GR, Hess RF, Dumoulin SO, Achtman RL, Pike GB (2001) The cortical deficit in humans with strabismic amblyopia. J Physiol 533:281–297

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Goodyear BG, Nicolle DA, Humphrey GK, Menon RS (2000) BOLD fMRI response of early visual areas to perceived contrast in human amblyopia. J Neurophysiol 84:1907–1913

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Demanins R, Wang YZ, Hess RF (1999) The neural deficit in strabismic amblyopia: sampling considerations. Vis Res 39:3575–3585

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Nelson LB, Calhoun JH, Harley RD (1991) Paediatric ophthalmology, 3rd edn. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  63. Horton JC, Hocking DR (1997) Timing of the critical period for plasticity of ocular dominance columns in macaque striate cortex. J Neurosci 17:3684–3709

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Hubel DH, Wiesel TN (1970) The period of susceptibility to the physiological effects of unilateral eye closure in kittens. J Physiol 206:419–436

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Campos E (1995) Amblyopia. Surv Ophthalmol 40:23–39

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. El Mallah MK, Chakravarthy U, Hart PM (2000) Amblyopia: Is visual loss permanent? Br J Ophthalmol 84:952–956

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Rahi JS, Logan S, Borja MC, Timms C, Russell-Eggitt I, Taylor D (2002) Prediction of improved vision in the amblyopic eye after visual loss in the non-amblyopic eye. Lancet 360:621–622

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Vereecken EP, Brabant P (1984) Prognosis for vision in amblyopia after the loss of the good eye. Arch Ophthalmol 102:220–224

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Wilson ME (1992) Adult amblyopia reversed by contralateral cataract formation. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 29:100–102

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Simmers AJ, Gray LS (1999) Improvement of visual function in an adult amblyope. Optom Vis Sci 76:82–87

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Hokoda SC, Ciuffreda KJ (1986) Different rates and amounts of vision function recovery during orthoptic therapy in an older strabismic amblyope. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 6:213–220

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Selenow A, Ciuffreda KJ (1986) Vision function recovery during orthoptic therapy in an adult esotropic amblyope. J Am Optom Assoc 57:132–140

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Selenow A, Ciuffreda KJ (1983) Vision function recovery during orthoptic therapy in an exotropic amblyope with high unilateral myopia. Am J Optom Physiol Opt 60:659–666

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Wick B, Wingard M, Cotter S, Scheiman M (1992) Anisometropic amblyopia: Is the patient ever too old to treat? OptomVis Sci 69:866–878

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Levi DM (2006) Visual processing in amblyopia: human studies. Strabismus 14:11–19

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Levi DM, Polat U (1996) Neural plasticity in adults with amblyopia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:6830–6834

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Polat U, Ma-Naim T, Belkin M, Sagi D (2004) Improving vision in adult amblyopia by perceptual learning. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:6692–6697

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Simons K (2005) Amblyopia characterization, treatment, and prophylaxis. Surv Ophthalmol 50:123–166

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. von Noorden GK (1990) Treatment of amblyopia. Fortschr Ophthalmol 87 Suppl:S149–S154

    Google Scholar 

  80. Webber AL (2007) Amblyopia treatment: an evidence-based approach to maximising treatment outcome. Clin Exp Optom 90:250–257

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Bacal DA (2004) Amblyopia treatment studies. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 15:432–436

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Rutstein RP (2005) Contemporary issues in amblyopia treatment. Optometry 76:570–578

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Holmes JM, Repka MX, Kraker RT, Clarke MP (2006) The treatment of amblyopia. Strabismus 14:37–42

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Awan M, Proudlock FA, Gottlob I (2005) A randomized controlled trial of unilateral strabismic and mixed amblyopia using occlusion dose monitors to record compliance. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 46:1435–1439

    Google Scholar 

  85. Stewart CE, Stephens DA, Fielder AR, Moseley MJ, MOTAS Cooperative (2007) Modeling dose-response in amblyopia: toward a child-specific treatment plan. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 48:2589–2594

    Google Scholar 

  86. Stewart CE, Stephens DA, Fielder AR, Moseley MJ, ROTAS Cooperative (2007) Objectively monitored patching regimens for treatment of amblyopia: randomised trial. Br Med J 335:707

    Google Scholar 

  87. Stewart CE, Moseley MJ, Stephens DA, Fielder AR (2004) Treatment dose-response in amblyopia therapy: the Monitored Occlusion Treatment of Amblyopia Study (MOTAS). Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 45:3048–3054

    Google Scholar 

  88. Stewart CE, Fielder AR, Stephens DA, Moseley MJ (2005) Treatment of unilateral amblyopia: factors influencing visual outcome. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 46:3152–3160

    Google Scholar 

  89. Friendly DS (1987) Amblyopia: definition, classification, diagnosis, and management considerations for pediatricians, family physicians, and general practitioners. Pediatr Clin N Am 34:1389–1401

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Dixon-Woods M, Awan M, Gottlob I (2006) Why is compliance with occlusion therapy for amblyopia so hard? A qualitative study. Arch Dis Child 91:491–494

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. McKee SP, Levi DM, Movshon JA (2003) The pattern of visual deficits in amblyopia. J Vis 3:380–405

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Simmers AJ, Gray LS, McGraw PV, Winn B (1999) Functional visual loss in amblyopia and the effect of occlusion therapy. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 40:2859–2871

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Hess RF, Dakin SC, Tewfik M, Brown B (2001) Contour interaction in amblyopia: scale selection. Vis Res 41:2285–2296

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Giaschi DE, Regan D, Kraft SP, Kothe AC (1993) Crowding and contrast in amblyopia. Optom Vis Sci 70:192–197

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Abrahamsson M, Sjostrand J (1988) Contrast sensitivity and acuity relationship in strabismic and anisometropic amblyopia. Br J Ophthalmol 72:44–49

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Loeffler M, Wise JS, Gans M (1990) Contrast sensitivity letter charts as a test of visual function in amblyopia. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 27:28–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Cox JF, Suh S, Leguire LE (1996) Vernier acuity in amblyopic and nonamblyopic children. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 33:39–46

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Levi DM, Klein SA, Yap YL (1987) Positional uncertainty in peripheral and amblyopic vision. Vis Res 27:581–597

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Wilson HR (1991) Model of peripheral and amblyopic hyperacuity. Vis Res 31:967–982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Sharma V, Levi DM, Klein SA (2000) Undercounting features and missing features: evidence for a high-level deficit in strabismic amblyopia. Nat Neurosci 3:496–501

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Sireteanu R, Lagreze WD, Constantinescu DH (1993) Distortions in two-dimensional visual space perception in strabismic observers. Vis Res 33:677–690

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Barrett BT, Pacey IE, Bradley A, Thibos LN, Morrill P (2003) Nonveridical visual perception in human amblyopia. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 44:1555–1567

    Google Scholar 

  103. Bedell HE, Flom MC, Barbeito R (1985) Spatial aberrations and acuity in strabismus and amblyopia. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 26:909–916

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Donahue SP, Wall M, Stanek KE (1998) Motion perimetry in anisometropic amblyopia: elevated size thresholds extend into the midperiphery. J AAPOS 2:94–101

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Simmers AJ, Ledgeway T, Hess RF, McGraw PV (2003) Deficits to global motion processing in human amblyopia. Vis Res 43:729–738

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Sharma V, Levi DM, Coletta NJ (1999) Sparse-sampling of gratings in the visual cortex of strabismic amblyopes. Vis Res 39:3526–3536

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Kandel GL, Grattan PE, Bedell HE (1980) Are the dominant eyes of amblyopes normal? Am J Optom Physiol Opt 57:1–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Leguire LE, Rogers GL, Bremer DL (1990) Amblyopia: the normal eye is not normal. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 27:32–38 (discussion 39)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Bedell HE, Flom MC (1985) Bilateral oculomotor abnormalities in strabismic amblyopes: evidence for a common central mechanism. Doc Ophthalmol 59:309–321

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Schor CM, Levi DM (1980) Disturbances of small-field horizontal and vertical optokinetic nystagmus in amblyopia. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 19:668–683

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Wali N, Leguire LE, Rogers GL, Bremer DL (1991) CSF interocular interactions in childhood amblyopia. Optom Vis Sci 68:81–87

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Reed MJ, Steeves JK, Steinbach MJ, Kraft S, Gallie B (1996) Contrast letter thresholds in the non-affected eye of strabismic and unilateral eye enucleated subjects. Vis Res 36:3011–3018

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Hood AS, Morrison JD (2002) The dependence of binocular contrast sensitivities on binocular single vision in normal and amblyopic human subjects. J Physiol 540:607–622

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Levi DM, Klein SA (1985) Vernier acuity, crowding and amblyopia. Vis Res 25:979–991

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Kelly SL, Buckingham TJ (1998) Movement hyperacuity in childhood amblyopia. Br J Ophthalmol 82:991–995

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Reed MJ, Steinbach MJ, Ono H, Kraft S, Gallie B (1995) Alignment ability of strabismic and eye enucleated subjects on the horizontal and oblique meridians. Vis Res 35:2523–2528

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Giaschi DE, Regan D, Kraft SP, Hong XH (1992) Defective processing of motion-defined form in the fellow eye of patients with unilateral amblyopia. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 33:2483–2489

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Watts PO, Neveu MM, Holder GE, Sloper JJ (2002) Visual evoked potentials in successfully treated strabismic amblyopes and normal subjects. J AAPOS 6:389–392

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Bedell HE, Kandel GL (1976) Experimentally induced variations in the dark adaptation functions of a severe strabismic amblyope. Doc Ophthalmol 41:129–156

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Barbur JL, Hess RF, Pinney HD (1994) Pupillary function in human amblyopia. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 14:139–149

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Fielder AR, Moseley MJ (1996) Does stereopsis matter in humans? Eye 10:233–238

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Sabri K, Knapp CM, Thompson JR, Gottlob I (2006) The VF-14 and psychological impact of amblyopia and strabismus. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci 47:4386–4392

    Google Scholar 

  123. Rahi JS, Cumberland PM, Peckham CS (2006) Does amblyopia affect educational, health, and social outcomes? Findings from 1958 British birth cohort. Br Med J 332:820–825

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Chua B, Mitchell P (2004) Consequences of amblyopia on education, occupation, and long term vision loss. Br J Ophthalmol 88:1119–1121

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Tommila V, Tarkkanen A (1981) Incidence of loss of vision in the healthy eye in amblyopia. Br J Ophthalmol 65:575–577

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Rahi J, Logan S, Timms C, Russell-Eggitt I, Taylor D (2002) Risk, causes, and outcomes of visual impairment after loss of vision in the non-amblyopic eye: a population-based study. Lancet 360:597–602

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. van Leeuwen R, Eijkemans MJ, Vingerling JR, Hofman A, de Jong PT, Simonsz HJ (2007) Risk of bilateral visual impairment in individuals with amblyopia: the Rotterdam study. Br J Ophthalmol 91:1450–1451

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Membreno JH, Brown MM, Brown GC, Sharma S, Beauchamp GR (2002) A cost-utility analysis of therapy for amblyopia. Ophthalmology 109:2265–2271

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

I would like to thank Professor Irene Gottlob and Dr. Frank Proudlock, University of Leicester/United Kingdom for their valuable assistance in accomplishing my research project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Ophthalmology, General Hospital of Veria, 97 Vlasi Gavriilidi Street, Kalamaria, 55131, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Evgenia Kanonidou

Authors
  1. Evgenia Kanonidou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Evgenia Kanonidou.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kanonidou, E. Amblyopia: a mini review of the literature. Int Ophthalmol 31, 249–256 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10792-011-9434-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10792-011-9434-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation