Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Preliminary Data on the Behavior, Ecology, and Morphology of Pygmy Tarsiers (Tarsius pumilus)

  • Published:
International Journal of Primatology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We here present the first behavioral, morphological, and ecological data on a living group of highland pygmy tarsiers, Tarsius pumilus, and compare them with the lowland tarsier species of Sulawesi. Pygmy tarsiers were previously known only from 3 museum specimens and had not been seen alive since the first specimens were collected in 1917 and 1930. As part of a 2-mo exploratory study, we recently located a group consisting of ≥4 pygmy tarsiers in the mossy cloud forest of Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. We captured 1 adult female and 2 adult male group members. The tarsiers weighed a mean of 50 g, less than half the weight of adult lowland tarsiers. Our behavioral observations indicate that these tarsiers live in small groups that return to the same sleeping tree each morning. Though our data are preliminary, pygmy tarsier body proportions appear to differ from the lowland Sulawesian tarsier species, with relatively long hind limbs compared to total body length. We also observed differences in grouping and communication behaviors. Unlike lowland tarsiers, pygmy tarsiers possess multiple adult males per group and rarely vocalize or scentmark. These differences may correlate with variables unique to their high altitude habitat, especially a reduction in food and tree resources, given that tree density declined sharply along an altitudinal gradient. Our preliminary study identifies the importance of altitudinal ecological gradients to tarsier behavioral ecology in Central Sulawesi, providing questions and predictions for future research directions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen, J. A. (1877). The influence of physical conditions in the genesis of species. Radical Review, 1, 108–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. Behaviour, 49, 227–267.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bearder, S. K., & Martin, R. D. (1979). The social organization of a nocturnal primate revealed by radio-tracking. In D. W. MacDonald & C. J. Amlaner (Eds.), A handbook on biotelemetry and radio tracking (pp. 633–648). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergmann, C. (1847). Über die verhältnisse der wärmeökonomie der thiere zu ihrer grösse. Göttinger Studien, 3, 595–708.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brower, J., Zar, J., & von Ende, C. (1990). Field and laboratory methods for general ecology. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crompton, R. H., & Andau, P. M. (1986). Locomotion and habitat utilization in free ranging Tarsius bancanus: a preliminary report. Primates, 27, 337–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crompton, R. H., & Andau, P. M. (1987). Ranging, activity rhythms, and sociality in free-ranging Tarsius bancanus: a preliminary report. International Journal of Primatology, 8, 43–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cui, L. W., Quan, R. C., & Xiao, W. (2006). Sleeping sites of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Baima Snow Mountain, China. Journal of Zoology, 27, 192–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagosto, M., & Gebo, D. L. (1998). Methodological issues in studying positional behavior: Meeting Ripley’s challenge. In E. Strasser, J. G. Fleagle, A. L. Rosenberger, & H. M. Muhenry (Eds.), Primate locomotion: Recent advances (pp. 5–3). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagosto, M., Gebo, D. L., & Dolino, C. (2001). Positional behavior and social organization of the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta). Primates, 42, 233–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dammhahn, M., & Kappeler, P. M. (2005). Social system of Microcebus berthae, the world’s smallest primate. International Journal of Primatology, 26, 407–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demes, B., Jungers, W. L., Fleagle, J. G., Wunderlich, R. E., Richmond, B. G., & Lemelin, P. (1996). Body size and leaping kinematics in Malagasy vertical clingers and leapers. Journal of Human Evolution, 31, 367–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Driller, C., Perwitasari-Farajallah, D., Zischler, H., & Merker, S. (2009). The social system of lariang tarsiers (Tarsius lariang) as revealed by genetic analyses. International Journal of Primatology, 30, 267–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gosling, L. M. (1982). A reassessment of the function of scentmarking in territories. Zeitschrift Tierpsychologie, 60, 89–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grubb, P. J. (1971). Interpretation of the ‘Massenerhebung’ effect on tropical mountains. Nature, 229, 44–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. L. (1995). Group size and composition in the spectral tarsier: implications for social organization. Tropical Biodiversity, 3, 57–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. L. (1997). Modeling maternal time budgets: the impact of lactation and infant transport on the time budget of the spectral tarsier, Tarsius spectrum. Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Stony Brook.

  • Gursky, S. L. (1998a). The effect of radio transmitter weight on a small nocturnal primate: data on activity time budgets, prey capture rates, mobility patterns and weight loss. American Journal of Primatology, 46, 145–155.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. L. (1998b). The conservation status of two Sulawesian tarsier species: Tarsius spectrum and Tarsius dianae. Primate Conservation, 18, 88–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. L. (2000a). Effect of seasonality on the behavior of an insectivorous primate. International Journal of Primatology, 21, 477–495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. L. (2000b). Sociality in the spectral tarsier. American Journal of Primatology, 51, 89–101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. L. (2002). Determinants of gregariousness in the spectral tarsier. Journal of Zoology, 256, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. L. (2007). Ecological and social factors selecting for gregariousness: Group size, composition, moon phase, and predators. In S. L. Gursky (N. Vasey & R. Sussman, Eds., Primate Field Studies Series), The spectral tarsier (pp. 83–110). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

  • Gursky-Doyen, S. L. (2010). The function of scentmarking in spectral tarsiers. In S. L. Gursky & J. Supriatna (Eds.), Indonesian primates (pp. 359–369). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hanya, G., Yoshihiro, S., Zamma, K., Matsubara, J., Ohtake, M., Kubo, R., et al. (2004). Environmental determinants of the altitudinal variations in relative group densities of Japanese macaques on Yakushima. Ecological Research, 19, 485–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iwamoto, T., & Dunbar, R. I. M. (1983). Thermoregulation, habitat quality and the behavioural ecology of gelada baboons. Journal of Animal Ecology, 52, 357–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. P. (1973). Scent marking in mammals. Animal Behavior, 21, 521–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (1990). The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in prosimian primates. American Journal of Primatology, 21, 201–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleiber, M. (1961). The fire of life. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiber, M., & Rogers, T. A. (1961). Energy metabolism. Annual Review of Physiology, 23, 15–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Körner, C. (2007). The use of ‘altitude’ in ecological research. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 22, 569–574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lehman, S. M., Ratsimbazafy, J., & Rajaonson, A. (2006). Ecological correlates to lemur community structure in southeast Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 27, 1023–1040.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, J., & MacKinnon, K. (1980). The behavior of wild spectral tarsiers. International Journal of Primatology, 1, 361–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, A. R., Topp-Jorgensen, J. E., Brink, H., & Fanning, E. (2005). Monkey abundance and social structure in two high-elevation forest reserves in the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania. International Journal of Primatology, 26, 127–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maryanto, I., & Yani, M. (2004). The third record of pygmy tarsier (Tarsius pumilus) from Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Tropical Biodiversity, 8(2), 79–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNab, B. K., & Wright, P. C. (1987). Temperature regulation and oxygen consumption in the Philippine tarsier Tarsius syrichta. Physiological Zoology, 60, 596–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merker, S. (2003). Vom Aussterben bedroht oder anpassungsfa¨hig? Der Koboldmaki Tarsius dianae in den Regenwäldern Sulawesis. Ph.D. dissertation, Georg August Universitat Göttingen, Germany.

  • Merker, S. (2006). Habitat-specific ranging patterns of Dian’s tarsiers (Tarsius dianae) as revealed by radiotracking. American Journal of Primatology, 68, 111–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merker, S., & Muhlenberg, M. (2000). Traditional land use and tarsiers: human influences on population densities of Tarsius dianae. Folia Primatologica, 71, 426–428.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Merker, S., & Groves, C. P. (2006). Tarsius lariang: a new primate species from western central Sulawesi. International Journal of Primatology, 27, 465–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merker, S., Yustian, I., & Muhlenberg, M. (2005). Responding to forest degradation: altered habitat use by Dian’s tarsier Tarsius dianae in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Oryx, 39, 189–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Microsoft Excel for Windows, Rel.11.3. (2004). Redmond: Microsoft Corp.

  • Miller, G. S., & Hollister, N. (1921). Twenty new mammals collected by H. C. Raven in Celebes. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 34, 93–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Musser, G. G., & Dagosto, M. (1987). The identity of Tarsius pumilus, a pygmy species endemic to the montane mossy forests of Central Sulawesi. American Museum Novitates, 2867, 1–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neri-Arboleda, I., Stott, P., & Arboleda, N. P. (2002). Home ranges, spatial movements and habitat associations of the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) in Corella, Bohol. Journal of Zoology, 257, 387–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niemitz, C. (1977). Zur funktionsmorphologie und biometrie der gattung Tarsius, Storr, 1780. Cour Forschung Institut Senckenberg, 25, 1–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niemitz, C. (1979). Relationships among anatomy, ecology, and behavior: A model developed in the genus Tarsius, with thoughts about phylogenetic mechanisms and adaptive interactions. In S. Morbeck, H. Preuschoft, & N. Gomberg (Eds.), Environment, behavior, and morphology: Dynamic interactions (pp. 119–138). New York: Gustav Fischer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niemitz, C. (1984). An investigation and review of the territorial behaviour and social organization of the genus Tarsius. In C. Niemitz (Ed.), Biology of tarsiers (pp. 117–128). New York: Gustav Fischer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niemitz, C. (1985). An investigation and review of the territorial behaviour and social organization of the genus Tarsius. In C. Niemitz (Ed.), Biology of tarsiers (pp. 117–128). New York: Gustav Fischer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niemitz, C., Nietsch, A., Warter, S., & Rumpler, Y. (1991). Tarsius dianae: a new primate species from Central Sulawesi (Indonesia). Folia Primatologica, 56, 105–116.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nietsch, A. (1999). Duet vocalizations among different populations of Sulawesi tarsiers. International Journal of Primatology, 20(4), 567–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rae, T. C., Hill, R. I., Hamada, Y., & Koppe, T. (2003). Clinal variation of maxillary sinus volume in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). American Journal of Primatology, 59, 153–158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riley, E. P. (2007). Flexibility in diet and activity patterns of Macaca tonkeana in response to anthropogenic habitat alteration. International Journal of Primatology, 28, 107–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schweithelm, J., Wirawan, N., Elliott, J., & Khan, J. (1992). Sulawesi parks program land use and socio-economic survey: Lore Lindu National Park and Morowali Nature Reserve. Jakarta: The Nature Conservancy.

  • Shekelle, M. (2003). Taxonomy and biogeography of Eastern Tarsiers. Ph.D. thesis. St. Louis, MO: Washington University.

  • Shekelle, M. (2008). The history and mystery of the mountain tarsier, Tarsius pumilus. Primate Conservation, 23, 121–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SPSS for Windows, Rel. 16.0. (2001). Chicago: SPSS Inc.

  • The Nature Conservancy. (2002). Lore Lindu National Park draft management plan 2002–2027 (Vol. 1). Arlington: The Nature Conservancy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiollay, J. M., & Rahman, Z. (2002). The raptor community of Central Sulawesi: habitat selection and conservation status. Biological Conservation, 107, 111–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremble, M., Muskita, Y., & Supriatna, J. (1993). Field observations of Tarsius dianae at Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Tropical Biodiversity, 1, 67–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, G., & Garrott, R. (1987). Analysis of wildlife radio tracking data. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitten, T., Mustafa, M., & Henderson, G. (1987). The ecology of Sulawesi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), the Directorate General for Nature Preservation and Forest Protection (PHPA) in Palu and Jakarta, SOSPOL, POLRI, the University of Indonesia, Jatna Supriatna, and Ibu Wirdateti for their sponsorship while in Indonesia. Special thanks go to our field assistants for their help in collecting the data (Leo, Baso, Amar, Sapri, Fanny, Yusuf, Ramon, Gusno, No). We also thank all anonymous reviewers of this manuscript for their insightful comments. The research protocols for this research were reviewed and approved by Texas A&M University IACUC committees. The research conducted in this study complied with the laws of Indonesia. Funding for this research was provided by National Geographic Society, Conservation International Primate Action Fund, Primate Conservation Inc., and Texas A&M University.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77840-3258, USA

    Nanda Grow & Sharon Gursky-Doyen

Authors
  1. Nanda Grow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sharon Gursky-Doyen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nanda Grow.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Grow, N., Gursky-Doyen, S. Preliminary Data on the Behavior, Ecology, and Morphology of Pygmy Tarsiers (Tarsius pumilus). Int J Primatol 31, 1174–1191 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-010-9456-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-010-9456-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation