Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Social Influences on Group Membership in Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi

  • Published:
International Journal of Primatology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The size and composition of a social group can influence the reproductive success of its members. I examined the hypothesis that residents actively try to manipulate group size and composition in Verreaux’s sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi). I collected behavioral data from 21 individuals in 5 social groups from November 2000 to March 2002 in the Kirindy Forest (C.F.P.F.) of western Madagascar. I investigated the affiliative and agonistic behaviors of resident males and females toward other group members to determine whether residents attempt to manipulate the costs and benefits of group membership. I also examined 3 cases of immigration attempts and 1 case of emigration. As expected, group members facilitated the residency of subordinate members of the opposite sex. For example, females sought out the subordinate males, responded to their calls, and even groomed them more. However, intrasexual relationships were also important for establishing or maintaining residency. The data, in conjunction with the observations of immigration and emigration events, suggest that resident individuals of both sexes attempt to influence group size and composition. I suggest that single–male groups are not the norm in Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi because females encourage, and males do not discourage, multiple males to reside in the group to increase group stability and to reduce the risk of infanticide.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alberts, S. C., Altmann, J., & Wilson, M. L. (1996). Mate guarding constrains foraging activity of male baboons. Animal Behaviour, 51, 1269–1277. doi:10.1006/anbe.1996.0131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alberts, S. C., Watts, H. E., & Altmann, J. (2003). Queuing and queue–jumping: Long-term patterns of reproductive skew in male savannah baboons, Papio cynocephalus. Animal Behaviour, 65, 821–840. doi:10.1006/anbe.2003.2106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behavior: Sampling methods. Behaviour, 48, 227–265. doi:10.1163/156853974X00534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altmann, J. (1990). Primate males go where the females are. Animal Behaviour, 39, 193–195. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80740-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altmann, S. A., & Altmann, J. (1979). Demographic constraints on behavior and social organization. In I. S. Bernstein, & E. O. Smith (Eds.), Primate Ecology and Human Origins: Ecological Influences on Social Organization (pp. 47–63). New York: Garland STPM Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockman, D. K. (1994). Reproduction and mating system of Verreaux's sifaka, Propithecus verreauxi, at Beza Mahafaly, Madagascar. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, New Haven.

  • Brockman, D. K. (1999). Reproductive behavior of female Propithecus verreauxi at Beza-Mahafaly, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 20, 375–398. doi:10.1023/A:1020500804442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brockman, D. K., Whitten, P. L., Richard, A. F., & Benander, B. (2001). Birth season testosterone levels in male Verreaux's sifaka, Propithecus verreauxi: Insights into socio-demographic factors mediating seasonal testicular function. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 49, 117–127. doi:10.1007/s002650000287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brockman, D. K., Whitten, P. L., Richard, A. F., & Schneider, A. (1998). Reproduction in free-ranging male Propithecus verreauxi: The hormonal correlates of mating and aggression. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 105, 137–151. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199802)105:2<137::AID-AJPA3>3.0.CO;2-S.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, M. R., & Glander, K. E. (1984). Female reproductive success in a group of free-ranging howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in Costa Rica. In M. F. Small (Ed.), Female primates: Studies by women primatologists (pp. 111–126). New York: Alan R. Liss.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., & Harvey, P. H. (1977). Species differences in feeding and ranging behaviour in primates. In T. H. Clutton-Brock (Ed.), Primate ecology (pp. 557–584). London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., Harvey, P. H., & Rudder, B. (1977). Sexual dimorphism, socionomic sex ratio and body weight in primates. Nature, 269, 797–800. doi:10.1038/269797a0.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, M. A., Bernstein, I. S., Fragazy, D. M., & Waal, F. B. (2001). Integration of new males into four social groups of tufted capuchins (Cebus apella). International Journal of Primatology, 22, 663–683. doi:10.1023/A:1010745803740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crockett, C. M. (1984). Emigration by female red howler monkeys and the case for female competition. In M. F. Small (Ed.), Female primates: Studies by women primatologists (pp. 159–173). New York: Alan R. Liss.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crockett, C. M., & Janson, C. H. (2000). Infanticide in red howlers: female group size, male membership, and a possible link to folivory. In C. P. van Schaik, & C. H. Janson (Eds.), Infanticide by males and its implications (pp. 75–98). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Digby, L. J. (1999). Targeting aggression in blue-eyed black lemurs. Primates, 40, 613–617. doi:10.1007/BF02574836.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erhart, E. M., & Overdorff, D. J. (1998). Infanticide in Propithecus diadema edwardsi: An evaluation of the sexual selection hypothesis. International Journal of Primatology, 19, 73–81. doi:10.1023/A:1020306910493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganzhorn, J. (2002). Distribution of a folivorous lemur in relation to seasonally varying food resources: integrating quantitative and qualitative aspects of food characteristics. Oecologia, 131, 427–435. doi:10.1007/s00442-002-0891-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glander, K. E. (1992). Dispersal patterns in Costa Rican mantled howling monkeys. International Journal of Primatology, 13, 415–436. doi:10.1007/BF02547826.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodall, J. (1986). Social rejection, exclusion, and shunning among the Gombe chimpanzees. Ethology and Sociobiology, 7, 227–236. doi:10.1016/0162-3095(86)90050-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, L. (1996). Male–female affiliative relationships in naturally occurring ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta) at the Beza-Mahafaly Reserve, Madagascar. American Journal of Primatology, 39, 63–78. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(1996)39:1<63::AID-AJP5>3.0.CO;2-Q.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, E., Lyon, B. E., Muehter, V. R., Ratcliffe, L., Oliver, S. J., & Boag, P. T. (2000). Disruptive sexual selection for plumage coloration in a passerine bird. Nature, 407, 1000–1003. doi:10.1038/35039500.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, P. J. (1980). Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in birds and mammals. Animal Behaviour, 28, 1140–1162. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(80)80103-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, D. A. (1987). Social relationships between adult male and female rhesus macaques. 1. Sexual consortships. Primates, 28, 439–456. doi:10.1007/BF02380860.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, D. A. (1994). Affilative behaviour between adult males of the genus Macaca. Behaviour, 130, 293–308. doi:10.1163/156853994X00578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinde, R. A. (1983). Development and dynamics. In R. A. Hinde (Ed.), Primate social relationships: An integrated approach (pp. 65–71). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huck, M. A., Lottker, P., & Heymann, E. W. (2004). Proximate mechanisms of reproductive monopolization in male moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax). American Journal of Primatology, 64, 39–56. doi:10.1002/ajp.20060.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jack, K. M., & Fedigan, L. (2004). Male dispersal patterns in white-faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus Part 1: patterns and causes of natal emigration. Animal Behaviour, 67, 761–769. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.04.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H. (1988). Intra-specific food competition and primate social-structure—a synthesis. Behaviour, 105, 1–17. doi:10.1163/156853988X00412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H., & Goldsmith, M. (1995). Predicting group size in primates: Foraging costs and predation risks. Behavioral Ecology, 6, 326–336. doi:10.1093/beheco/6.3.326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone, R. A., & Cant, M. A. (1999). Reproductive skew and the threat of eviction: A new perspective. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences, 266, 275–279. doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0633.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jolly, A. (1966). Lemur behavior: A Madagascar field study p. 187. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, C. B. (1980). The functions of status in the mantled howler monkey, Alouatta palliata Gray: Intraspecific competition for group membership in a folivorous neotropical primate. Primates, 21, 389–405. doi:10.1007/BF02390468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (2000). Causes and consequences of unusual sex ratios among lemurs. In P. M. Kappeler (Ed.), Primate males: Causes and consequences of variation in group composition (pp. 55–63). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraus, C., Heistermann, M., & Kappeler, P. M. (1999). Physiological suppression of sexual function of subordinate males: a subtle form of intrasexual competition among male sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi)? Physiology & Behavior, 66, 855–861. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(99)00024-4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kubzdela, K. S. (1997). Sociodemography in Diurnal Primates: The Effects of Group Size and Female Dominance Rank on Intra-group Spatial Distribution, Feeding Competition, Female Reproductive Success, and Female Dispersal Patterns in White Sifaka, Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, Chicago.

  • Lawler, R. R. (2003). Causes and consequences of differential reproductive success in male White Sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi). Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, New Haven, 129 pp.

  • Lawler, R. R. (2007). Fitness and extra-group reproduction in male Verreaux's sifaka: An analysis of reproductive success from 1989–1999. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 132, 267–277. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawler, R. R., Richard, A. F., & Riley, M. A. (2003). Genetic population structure of the white sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi) at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, southwest Madagascar (1992–2001). Molecular Ecology, 12, 2307–2317. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01909.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R. J. (2004). Sources of variation in male–female relationships: Power, conflict, and cooperation, Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, Durham, NC.

  • Lewis, R. J. (2005). Sex differences in scent-marking in Sifaka: Mating conflict or male services. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 128, 389–398. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R. J., & Kappeler, P. M. (2005). Seasonality, body condition, and timing of reproduction in Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi in the Kirindy Forest. American Journal of Primatology, 66, 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R. J., Razafindrasamba, S. M., & Tolojanahary, J. P. (2003). Observed infanticide in a seasonal breeding prosimian (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi) in Kirindy Forest, Madagascar. Folia Primatologica, 74, 101–103. doi:10.1159/000070006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R. J., & van Schaik, C. P. (2007). Bimorphism in male Verreaux's sifaka in the Kirindy Forest of Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 28, 159–182. doi:10.1007/s10764-006-9107-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindenfors, P., Froberg, L., & Nunn, C. L. (2004). Females drive primate social evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences, 271, S101–S103. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2003.0114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitani, J. C., Gros-Louis, J., & Manson, J. H. (1996). Number of males in primate groups: Comparative tests of competing hypotheses. American Journal of Primatology, 38, 315–332. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(1996)38:4<315::AID-AJP3>3.0.CO;2-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nishida, T. (1989). Social interactions between resident and immigrant female chimpanzees. In P. G. Heltne, & L. A. Marquardt (Eds.), Understanding chimpanzees (pp. 68–89). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunn, C. L. (1999). The number of males in primate social groups: a comparative test of the socioecological model. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 46, 1–13. doi:10.1007/s002650050586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ostner, J., & Kappeler, P. M. (2004). Male life history and the unusual adult sex ratios of redfronted lemur, Eulemur fulvus rufus, groups. Animal Behaviour, 67, 249–259. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.05.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M. E., & Kappeler, P. M. (1997). Divergent systems of agonistic behaviour in lemurid primates. Behaviour, 134, 225–274. doi:10.1163/156853997X00467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pochron, S. T., Fitzgerald, J., Gilbert, C. C., Lawrence, D., Grgas, M., Rakotonirina, G., et al. (2003). Patterns of female dominance in Propithecus diadema edwardsi of Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. American Journal of Primatology, 61, 173–185. doi:10.1002/ajp.10119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pochron, S. T., & Wright, P. C. (2003). Variability in adult group compositions of a prosimian primate. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 54, 285–293. doi:10.1007/s00265-003-0634-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pope, T. R. (2000). Reproductive success increases with degree of kinship in cooperative coalitions of female red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 48, 253–267. doi:10.1007/s002650000236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F. (1978). Behavioral variation: Case study of a Malagasy lemur. Lewisburg: Bucknell University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F. (1985). Social boundaries in a Malagasy prosimian, the sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi). International Journal of Primatology, 6, 553–568. doi:10.1007/BF02692288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F. (1987). Malagasy prosimians: Female dominance. In B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham, & T. T. Struhsaker (Eds.), Primate Societies (pp. 25–33). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F. (1992). Aggressive competition between males, female-controlled polygyny and sexual monomorphism in a Malagasy primate, Propithecus verreauxi. Journal of Human Evolution, 22, 395–406. doi:10.1016/0047-2484(92)90067-J.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F., Dewar, R. E., Swartz, M., & Ratsirarson, J. (2002). Life in the slow lane? Demography and life histories of male and female sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi). Journal of Zoology, 256, 421–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F., Rakotomanga, P., & Schwartz, M. (1991). Demography of Propithecus verreauxi at Beza Mahafali, Madagascar: sex ratio, survival, and fertility. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 84, 307–322. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330840307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F., Rakotomanga, P., & Schwartz, M. (1993). Dispersal by Propithecus verreauxi at Beza Mahafaly, Madagascar: 1984–1991. American Journal of Primatology, 30, 1–20. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350300102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, A. M., & Robbins, M. M. (2005). Fitness consequences of dispersal decisions for male mountain gorillas (Gorllia beringei beringei). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 58, 295–309. doi:10.1007/s00265-005-0917-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaffner, C. M., & French, J. A. (1997). Group size and aggression: ‘Recruitment incentives’ in a cooperatively breeding primate. Animal Behaviour, 54, 171–180. doi:10.1006/anbe.1996.0413.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schülke, O., & Kappeler, P. M. (2003). So near and yet so far: territorial pairs but low cohesion between pair partners in a noncturnal lemur, Phaner furcifer. Animal Behaviour, 65, 331–343. doi:10.1006/anbe.2003.2018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Setchell, J. M., Knapp, L. A., & Wickings, E. J. (2006). Violent coalitionary attack by female mandrills against an injured alpha male. American Journal of Primatology, 68, 411–418. doi:10.1002/ajp.20234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sicotte, P. (1994). Effect of male competition on male–female relationships in bi-male groups of mountain gorillas. Ethology, 97, 47–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts, B. B. (1985). Sex and friendship in baboons. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorg, J.-P., & Rohner, U. (1996). Climate and tree phenology of the dry deciduous forest of the Kirindy Forest. In J. U. Ganzhorn and J.-P. Sorg (Eds.), Primate report, pp. 57–80.

  • Steenbeek, R., & van Schaik, C. P. (2001). Competition and group size in Thomas's langurs (Presbytis thomasi): the folivore paradox revisited. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 49, 100–110. doi:10.1007/s002650000286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strum, S. C. (1987). Almost human: A journey into the world of baboons. New York: W. W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terborgh, J., & Janson, C. H. (1986). The socioecology of primate groups. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 17, 111–135. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.17.110186.000551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P. (1983). Why are diurnal primates living in groups? Behaviour, 87, 120–144. doi:10.1163/156853983X00147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., & Kappeler, P. M. (1996). The social systems of gregarious lemurs: lack of convergence with anthropoids due to evolutionary disequilibrium. Ethology, 102, 915–941.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vick, L. G., & Pereira, M. E. (1989). Episodic targeting aggression and the histories of Lemur social groups. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 25, 3–12. doi:10.1007/BF00299705.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watts, D. P. (1991). Harassment of immigrant female mountain gorillas by resident females. Ethology, 89, 135–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watts, D. P. (1992). Social relationships of immigrant and resident female mountain gorillas. I. Male–female relationships. American Journal of Primatology, 28, 159–181. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350280302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. C. (1995). Demography and life-history of free-ranging Propithecus diadema edwardsi in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology, 16, 835–854. doi:10.1007/BF02735722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. C. (1999). Lemur traits and Madagascar ecology: coping with an island environment. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 42, 31–72. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(1999)110:29+<31::AID-AJPA3>3.0.CO;2-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Two anonymous reviewers and C. Kirk greatly improved the manuscript with their helpful comments. M. Mahometa, a consultant in the Division of Statistics and Scientific Computation at the University of Texas, helped me figure out which statistics could be used for this analysis. I thank C. van Schaik, D. Brockman, K. Glander, C. Kirk, K. Smith, M. Munger, and D. Overdorff. I also thank P. Kappeler, DPZ, the Malagasy Government, Eaux et Fôrets, C.F.P.F., MICET, and D. Rakotondavony. Research methods for this study were in compliance with the requirements of Madagascar and the Duke University IACUC. The Wenner-Gren and Leakey Foundations provided funding for the research. The material is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation Dissertation Improvement Grant under grant no. 0002570.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA

    Rebecca J. Lewis

Authors
  1. Rebecca J. Lewis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rebecca J. Lewis.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lewis, R.J. Social Influences on Group Membership in Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi . Int J Primatol 29, 1249–1270 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-008-9304-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-008-9304-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation