Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Gape Limitation, Prey Size Refuges and the Top–down Impacts of Piscivorous Largemouth Bass in Shallow Pond Ecosystems

  • Primary Research Paper
  • Published:
Hydrobiologia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Top–down control of phytoplankton biomass through piscivorous fish manipulation has been explored in numerous ecological and biomanipulation experiments. Piscivores are gape-limited predators and it is hypothesized that the distribution of gape sizes relative to distribution of body depths of prey fish may restrict piscivore effects cascading to plankton. We examined the top–down effects of piscivorous largemouth bass on nutrients, turbidity, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish in ponds containing fish assemblages with species representing a range of body sizes and feeding habits (western mosquitofish, bluegill, channel catfish, gizzard shad and common carp). The experimental design consisted of three replicated treatments: fishless ponds (NF), fish community without largemouth bass (FC), and fish community with largemouth bass (FCB). Turbidity, chlorophyll a, cyclopoid copepodid and copepod nauplii densities were significantly greater in FC and FCB ponds than in NF ponds. However, these response variables were not significantly different in FC and FCB ponds. The biomass and density of shallow-bodied western mosquitofish were reduced and bluegill body depths shifted toward larger size classes in the presence of largemouth bass, but the biomass and density of all other fish species and of the total fish community were unaffected by the presence of largemouth bass. Our results show that top–down impacts of largemouth bass in ecosystems containing small- and deep-bodied fish species may be most intense at the top of the food web and alter the size distribution and species composition of the fish community. However, these top–down effects may not cascade to the level of the plankton when large-bodied benthivorous fish species are abundant.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Albright M. F., Harman W. N., Tibbits W. T., Gray M. S. and Hamway R. J. (2004). Biomanipulation: a classic example in a shallow eutrophic pond. Lake and Reservoir Management 20: 181–187

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • (1985). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (16th edn.). American Water Works Association, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Baca R. M. and Drenner R. W. (1995). Do the effects of piscivorous largemouth bass cascade to the plankton?. Hydrobiologia 316: 139–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benndorf J., Böing W., Koop J. and Neubauer I. (2002). Top–down control of phytoplankton: the role of time scale, lake depth and trophic state. Freshwater Biology 47: 2282–2295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond W. (2001). Keystone species – hunting the snark?. Science 292: 63–64

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Borer E. T., Seabloom E. W., Shurin J. B., Anderson K. E., Broitman B., Cooper S. D. and Halpern B. S. (2005). What determines the strength of a trophic cascade?. Ecology 86: 528–537

    Google Scholar 

  • Brabrand A., Faafeng B. A. and Nilssen J. P. M. (1990). Relative importance of phosphorus supply to phytoplankton – fish excretion versus external loading. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47: 364–372

    Google Scholar 

  • Breukelaar A. W., Lammens E. H. R. R., Breteler J. G. P. K. and Tatrai I. (1994). Effects of benthivorous bream (Abramis brama) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) on sediment resuspension and concentrations of nutrients and chlorophyll-a. Freshwater Biology 32: 13–121

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter S. R., Kitchell J. and Hodgson J. (1985). Cascading trophic interactions and lake productivity. BioScience 35: 634–639

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter S. R., Kitchell J. F., Hodson J. R., Cochran P. A., Elser M. M., Lodge D. M., Kretchmer D. and He X. (1987). Regulation of lake primary productivity by food web structure. Ecology 68: 1863–1867

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cline J. M., East T. L. and Threlkeld S. T. (1994). Fish interactions with the sediment-water interface. Hydrobiologia 275/276: 301–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Elia C. F., Steudler P. A. and Corwin N. (1977). Determination of total nitrogen in aqueous samples using persulfate digestion. Limnology and Oceanography 22: 760–764

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeMelo R., France R. and McQueen D. J. (1992). Biomanipulation: hit or myth?. Limnology and Oceanography 37: 192–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Drenner R. W. and Hambright K. D. (1999). Biomanipulation of fish assemblages as a lake restoration technique. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 146: 129–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Drenner R. W. and Hambright K. D. (2002). Piscivores, trophic cascades and lake management. The Scientific World 2: 284–307

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drenner R. W. and Smith J. D. (1991). Biomass-dependent effects of mosquitofish on zooplankton, chlorophyll and size distribution of particulate phosphorus. Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie Verhandlungen 24: 2382–2386

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drenner R. W., Smith J. D., Mummert J. R. and Lancaster H. F. (1990). Responses of a eutrophic pond community to separate and combined effects of N:P supply and planktivorous fish: a mesocosm experiment. Hydrobiologia 208: 161–167

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drenner R. W., Gallo K. L., Baca R. M. and Smith J. D. (1998). Synergistic effects of nutrient loading and omnivorous fish on phytoplankton biomass. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55: 2087–2096

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drenner R. W., Baca R. M., Gilroy J. S., Ernst M. R., Jensen D. J. and Marshall D. H. (2002). Community responses to piscivorous largemouth bass: a biomanipulation experiment. Lake and Reservoir Management 18: 44–51

    Google Scholar 

  • Elser J. J., Chrzanowski T. H., Sterner R. W. and Mills K. H. (1998). Stoichiometric constraints on food-web dynamics: a whole-lake experiment on the Canadian Shield. Ecosystems 1: 120–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Findlay C. S., Bert D. G. and Zheng L. (2000). Effect of introduced piscivores on native minnow communities in Adirondak lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57: 570–580

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hairston N. G. and Hairston N. G. (1993). Cause–effect relationships in energy-flow, trophic structure and interspecific interactions. The American Naturalist 142: 379–411

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hairston N. G. and Hairston N. G. (1997). Does food web complexity eliminate trophic-level dynamics?. The American Naturalist 149: 1001–1007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall D. J., Cooper W. E. and Werner E. E. (1970). An experimental approach to the production dynamics and structure of freshwater animal communities. Limnology and Oceanography 15: 839–929

    Google Scholar 

  • Hambright K. D. (1994). Morphological constraints in the piscivore–planktivore interaction: implications for the trophic cascade hypothesis. Limnology and Oceanography 39: 897–912

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hambright K. D., Trebatoski R. J. and Drenner R. W. (1986). Experimental study of the impacts of bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) on pond community structure. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43: 1171–1176

    Google Scholar 

  • Hambright K. D., Drenner R. W., McComas S. R. and Hairston N. G. (1991). Gape-limited piscivores, planktivore size refuges, and the trophic cascade hypothesis. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 121: 389–404

    Google Scholar 

  • Haney J. F. and Hall D. J. (1973). Sugar-coated Daphnia: a preservation technique for Cladocera. Limnology and Oceanography 18: 331–333

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson M. A. and Butler M. G. (1990). Early responses of plankton and turbidity to biomanipulation in a shallow prairie lake. Hydrobiologia 200/201: 317–327

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson M. A. and Butler M. G. (1994a). Responses of plankton, turbidity and macrophytes to biomanipulation in a shallow prairie lake. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 51: 1180–1188

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson M. A. and Butler M. G. (1994b). Responses to food web manipulation in a shallow waterfowl lake. Hydrobiologia 279/280: 457–466

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Havens K. E. (1993). Responses to experimental fish manipulations in a shallow, hypereutrophic lake – the relative importance of benthic nutrient recycling and trophic cascade. Hydrobiologia 254: 73–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyle J. A. and Keast A. (1987). Prey handling time in two piscivores, Esox americanus vermiculatus and Micropterus salmoides, with contrasting mouth morphologies. Canadian Journal of Zoology 65: 540–542

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyle J. A. and Keast A. (1988). The effect of prey morphology and size on handling time in a piscivore, the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Canadian Journal of Zoology 66: 1972–1977

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hrbáček J., Dvorakova D., Korinek V. and Prochazkova L. (1961). Demonstration of the effect of the fish stock on the species composition of zooplankton and the intensity of metabolism of the whole plankton association. Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie Verhandlungen 14: 192–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurlbert S. H. (1997). Functional importance vs. keystoneness: reformulating some questions in theoretical biocenology. Australian Journal of Ecology 22: 369–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurlbert S. H. and Mulla M. S. (1981). Impacts of mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) predation on plankton communities. Hydrobiologia 83: 125–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurlbert S. H., Zedler J. and Fairbanks D. (1972). Ecosystem alteration by mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) predation. Science 175: 639–641

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins R. M. (1975). Black bass crops and species associations in reservoirs. In: Stroud, R. H. and Clepper, H. (eds) Black bass Biology and Management, pp 114–124. Sport Fishing Institute, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson J.M. and Post D. M. (1996). Morphological constraints on intracohort cannibalism in age-0 largemouth bass. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 125: 809–812

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeppesen E., Jensen J. P., Søndergaard M. and Lauridsen T. (1997). Top–down control of freshwater lakes: the role of nutrient state, submerged macrophytes and water depth. Hydrobioloigia 342/343: 151–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeppesen E., Jensen J. P., Jensen C., Faafeng B., Hessen D. O., Søndergaard M., Lauridsen T., Brettum P. and Christoffersen K. (2003). The impact of nutrient state and lake depth on top–down control in the pelagic zone of lakes: a study of 466 lakes from the temperate to the arctic. Ecosystems 6: 313–325

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalff J. (2002). Limnology: Inland Water Ecosystems. Prentice Hall, New Jersey

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamarra V. A. (1975). Digestive activities of carp as a major contributor to the nutrient loading of lakes. Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie Verhandlungen 19: 2461–2468

    Google Scholar 

  • Lancaster H. F. and Drenner R. W. (1990). Experimental mesocosm study on the separate and interaction effects of phosphorus and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) on plankton community structure. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47: 471–479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazumder A. (1994a). Patterns of algal biomass in dominant odd- versus even-link lake ecosystems. Ecology 75: 1141–1149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazumder A. (1994b). Phosphorus–chlorophyll relationships under contrasting herbivory and thermal stratification: predictions and patterns. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 51: 390–400

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mazumder A. (1994c). Phosphorus–chlorophyll relationships under contrasting zooplankton community structure: potential mechanisms. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 51: 401–407

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McQueen D. J. (1998). Freshwater food web biomanipulation: a powerful tool for water quality improvement, but maintenance is required. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management 3: 83–94

    Google Scholar 

  • McQueen D. J., Post J. R. and Mills E. L. (1986). Trophic relationships in freshwater pelagic ecosystems. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43: 1571–1581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McQueen D. J., Ramcharan C. W. and Yan N. D. (2001). The Dorset food web piscivore manipulation project – Part 12: summary and emergent properties. Archiv für Hydrobiologie Special Issues Advances in Limnology 56: 257–288

    Google Scholar 

  • Menge B. A., Berlow E. L., Blanchette C. A. and Navarette S. A. (1994). The keystone concept: variation in interaction strength in a rocky intertidal habitat. Ecological Monographs 64: 249–286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menzel D. W. and Corwin N. (1965). The measurement of total phosphorus in seawater based on the liberation of organically bound fractions by persulfate oxidation. Limnology and Oceanography 10: 280–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meijer M.-L., Lammens E. H. R. R., Raat A. J. P., Grimm M. P. and Hosper S. H. (1990). Impact of cyprinids on zooplankton and algae in ten drainable ponds. Hydrobiologia 191: 275–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda L. E. (1983). Average icthyomass in Texas large impoundments. Proceedings of the Texas Chapter of the American Fisheries Society 6: 58–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Mittelbach G. G. and Persson L. (1998). The ontogeny of piscivory and its ecological implications. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55: 1454–1465

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mittelbach G. G., Turner A. M., Hall D. J. and Rettig J. E. (1995). Perturbation and resilience: a long-term, whole-lake study of predator extinction and reintroduction. Ecology 76: 2347–2360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowlin W. H. and Drenner R. W. (2000). Context-dependent effects of bluegill in experimental mesocosm communities. Oecologia 122: 421–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pace M. L., Cole J. J., Carpenter S. R. and Kitchell J. F. (1999). Trophic cascades revealed in diverse ecosystems. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 14: 483–488

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Page L. M. and Burr B. M. (1991). The Peterson’s Field Guide Series: A Field Guide to Freshwater Fishes. Houghton Mifflin, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Polis G. A. and Strong D. R. (1996). Food web complexity and community dynamics. The American Naturalist 147: 813–846

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polis G. A., Sears A. L. W., Huxel G. R. and Strong D. R. (2000). When is a trophic cascade a trophic cascade?. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15: 473–475

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Power M. E., Tilman D., Estes J. A., Menge B. A., Bond W. J., Mills L. S., Daily G. D., Castilla J. C., Lubchenco J. and Paine R. T. (1996). Challenges in the quest for keystones. BioScience 46: 609–620

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qin J. and Threlkeld S. T. (1990). Experimental comparison of the effects of benthivorous fish and planktivorous fish on plankton community structure. Archiv für Hydrobiologie Beiheft Ergebnisse der Limnologie 119: 121–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds C. S. (1994). The ecological basis for the successful biomanipulation of aquatic communities. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 130: 1–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson W. B., Wickham S. A. and Threlkeld S. T. (1990). Food-web response to the experimental manipulation of benthivore (Cyprinus carpio), zooplanktivore (Menidia beryllina) and benthic insects. Archiv für Hydrobiologie Beiheft Ergebnisse der Limnologie 119: 143–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaus M. H., Vanni M. J., Wissing T. E., Bremigan M. T., Garvey J. E. and Stein R. E. (1997). Nitrogen and phosphorus excretion by detritivorous gizzard shad in a reservoir ecosystem. Limnology and Oceanography 42: 1386–1397

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schaus M. H., Vanni M. J. and Wissing T. E. (2002). Biomass-dependent diet shifts in omnivorous gizzard shad: implications for growth, food web and ecosystem effects. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 131: 40–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schindler D. E., Hodgson J. R. and Kitchell J. F. (1997). Density-dependent changes in individual foraging specialization of largemouth bass. Oecologia 110: 592–600

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz O. J., Hambach P. A. and Beckerman A. P. (2000). Trophic cascades in terrestrial systems: a review of the effects of carnivore removal on plants. The American Naturalist 155: 141–153

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro J. (1990). Biomanipulation: the next phase – making it stable. Hydrobiologia 200/201: 13–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro J. and Wright D. I. (1984). Lake restoration by biomanipulation: Round Lake, Minnesota, the first two years. Freshwater Biology 14: 371–383

    Google Scholar 

  • Shurin J. B., Borer E. T., Seabloom E. W., Anderson K., Blanchette C. A., Broitman B., Cooper S. D. and Halpern B. S. (2002). A cross-ecosystem comparison of the strength of trophic cascades. Ecology Letters 5: 785–791

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer C. N. and King D. L. (1984). Role of fish in regulation of plant and animal communities in eutrophic ponds. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 41: 1851–1855

    Google Scholar 

  • Stein R. A., DeVries D. R. and Dettmers M. M. (1995). Food-web regulation by a planktivore: exploring the generality of the trophic cascade hypothesis. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 52: 2518–2526

    Google Scholar 

  • Tátrai I., Tóth G., Ponyi J. E., Zlinskzky J. and Istvánovics V. (1990). Bottom-up effects of bream (Abramis brama L.) in Lake Balaton. Hydrobiologia 200/201: 167–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Tátrai I., Oláh J., Paulovits G., K., Kawiecka B. J., Jozsa V. and Pekár F. (1997). Biomass dependent interactions in pond ecosystems: responses of lower trophic levels to fish manipulations. Hydrobiologia 345: 117–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tonn W. M. and Paszkowski C. A. (1986). Size-limited predation, winterkill and the organization of Umbra-Perca fish assemblages. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43: 194–2002

    Google Scholar 

  • Tonn W. M., Paszkowski C. A. and Holopainen I. J. (1992). Piscivory and recruitment: mechanisms structuring prey populations in small lakes. Ecology 73: 951–958

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremmel B., Nicholls K. H., McQueen D. J., Ramcharan C. W. and Pérez-Fuentetaja A. (2001). Did phytoplankton biovolume and taxonomic composition change?. In: DeMott, W. R. (eds) The Dorset food web piscivore manipulation project, pp. Archiv für Hydrobiologie – Advances in Limnology #56, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner A. M. and Mittelbach G. G. (1990). Predator avoidance and community structure: interactions among piscivores, planktivores and plankton. Ecology 71: 2241–2254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mannaerts G. P. (1987). Inorganic and organic phosphate measurements in the nanomolar range. Analytical Biochemistry 161: 45–48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner K. J. (1986). Biological management of a pond ecosystem to meet water use objectives. In: Redfield, G.,, Taggart, J. F. and Moore, L. M. (eds) Lake and Reservoir Management Volume II – Proceedings of the 5th Annual Conference and International Symposium of the North American Lake Management Society, 1985, Geneva, Wisconsin, pp 54–59. North American Lake Management Society, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Welcomme R., L., 1988. A History of International Introductions of Inland Aquatic Species. United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, Fisheries Technical Paper Number 294, Rome

  • Werner E. E. and Hall D. J. (1988). Ontogenetic habitat shifts in bluegill: the foraging rate-predation risk trade-off. Ecology 69: 1352–1366

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wetzel R. G. (1983). Limnology. Harcourt Brace Publishers, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson L. (1998). SYSTAT 8.0 User’s Manual, Version 8.0. SYSTAT Inc, Evanston, Illinois

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood L. W. (1985). Chloroform–methanol extraction of chlorophyll. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42: 38–43

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, 76129, USA

    Weston H. Nowlin, Ray W. Drenner, Kirk R. Guckenberger, Mark A. Lauden, G. Todd Alonso, Joseph E. Fennell & Judson L. Smith

  2. Department of Biology, Texas State University – San Marcos, Freeman Aquatics Building, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA

    Weston H. Nowlin

Authors
  1. Weston H. Nowlin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ray W. Drenner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kirk R. Guckenberger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mark A. Lauden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. G. Todd Alonso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Joseph E. Fennell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Judson L. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Weston H. Nowlin.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nowlin, W.H., Drenner, R.W., Guckenberger, K.R. et al. Gape Limitation, Prey Size Refuges and the Top–down Impacts of Piscivorous Largemouth Bass in Shallow Pond Ecosystems. Hydrobiologia 563, 357–369 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0024-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0024-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation