Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Space-Based Identification of Archaeological Illegal Excavations and a New Automatic Method for Looting Feature Extraction in Desert Areas

  • Published:
Surveys in Geophysics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The identification and quantification of disturbance of archaeological sites has been generally approached by visual inspection of optical aerial or satellite pictures. In this paper, we briefly summarize the state of the art of the traditionally satellite-based approaches for looting identification and propose a new automatic method for archaeological looting feature extraction approach (ALFEA). It is based on three steps: the enhancement using spatial autocorrelation, unsupervised classification, and segmentation. ALFEA has been applied to Google Earth images of two test areas, selected in desert environs in Syria (Dura Europos), and in Peru (Cahuachi-Nasca). The reliability of ALFEA was assessed through field surveys in Peru and visual inspection for the Syrian case study. Results from the evaluation procedure showed satisfactory performance from both of the two analysed test cases with a rate of success higher than 90%.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Courtesy of Google Earth

Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • AAS (2015) Ancient history, modern destruction: assessing the current status of Syria’s world heritage sites using high-resolution satellite imagery. https://www.aaas.org/page/ancient-history-modern-destruction-assessing-current-status-syria-s-world-heritage-sites-using. Accessed 26 Nov 2016

  • Abdulkarim M (2014) Directorate general of antiquities and museums annual report 2013. Ministry of Culture, Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums, Damascus

    Google Scholar 

  • Agapiou A, Lysandrou V, Hadjimitsis DG (2017) Optical remote sensing potentials for looting detection. Geosciences 7(4):98. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7040098

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alva W (2001) The destruction, looting and traffic of the archaeological heritage of Peru. In: Brodie NJ, Doole J, Renfrew C (eds) Trade in illicit antiquities: the destruction of the world’s archaeological heritage. Cambridge McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp 89–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Anselin L (1995) Local indicators of spatial association LISA. Geogr Anal 27:93–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anselin L (2018) A local indicator of multivariate spatial association: extending geary’s c. http://priede.bf.lu.lv/ftp/pub/TIS/datu_analiize/GeoDa/LA_multivariateGeary1.pdf. Access 17 May 2018

  • Batievski J, Velarde J (2006) The protection of cultural patrimony in Peru”. In: Hoffmann BT (ed) Art and cultural heritage: law, policy, and practice; Art and cultural heritage law, policy, and practice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 100–104

    Google Scholar 

  • BBC (2016) The Syria: The story of the conflict. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26116868. Accessed 26 Nov 2016

  • Bowen FW, Tofel BB, Parcak S, Granger R (2017) Algorithmic identification of looted archaeological sites from space. Frontiers in ICT. https://doi.org/10.3389/fict.2017.00004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman N (2008) Transnational crimes against culture: looting at archaeological sites and the ‘grey’ market in antiquities. J Contemp Crim Justice 24(3):225–242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brodie NJ, Doole J, Renfrew C (2001) Trade in illicit antiquities: the destruction of the world’s archaeological heritage. McDonald Institute, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Casana J (2015) Satellite imagery-based analysis of archaeological looting in Syria. Near Eastern Archaeol 8(3):142–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casana J, Panahipour M (2014) Satellite-based monitoring of looting and damage to archaeological sites in Syria. J Eastern Mediterranean Archaeol Heritage Stud 2(2):129–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cerra D, Pank S, Lysandrou V, Tian J (2016) Cultural Heritage Sites in Danger—Towards Automatic Damage Detection from Space. Remote Sensing 8:781. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8090781

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Contreras DA (2010) Huaqueros and remote sensing imagery: assessing looting damage in the Viru Valley. Peru. Antiquity 84(324):544–555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Contreras DA, Brodie N (2013) The utility of publicly-available satellite imagery for investigating looting of archaeological sites in Jordan. J. Field Archaeol. 35:101–114. https://doi.org/10.1179/009346910X12707320296838

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conversation (2016) Inside ISIS’ looted antiquities trade. http://theconversation.com/inside-isis-looted-antiquities-trade-59287. Accessed 26 Nov 2016

  • Cunliffe E (2012) Damage to the Soul: Damage to the soul: Syria’s Cultural Heritage in Conflict Global Heritage Fund. http://ghn.globalheritagefund.com/uploads/documents/document_2107.pdf. Accessed 26 Nov 2016

  • Cunliffe E, Pedersen W, Fiol M, Jellison T, Saslow C, Bjørgo E, Boccardi (2014) Satellite-based Damage Assessment to Cultural Heritage Sites in Syria. UNITAR/UNOSAT: http://www.unitar.org/unosat/chs-syria. Accessed 26 Nov 2016

  • Dirven LA (1999) The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria. Brill, Leiden

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Doering HU (1958) Bericht über archaologische Feldarbeiten in Perú. Ethnos 23(2–4):67–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Figorito B, Tarantino E (2014) Semi-automatic detection of linear archaeological traces fromorthorectified aerial images. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 26(1):458–463

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary RC (1954) The Contiguity Ratio and Statistical Mapping. The Incorporated Statistician 5(3):115–145. https://doi.org/10.2307/2986645.JSTOR2986645

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo H (2016) Digital earth and future earth. Int J Dig Earth 9(1)

  • Hopkins C (1979) The discovery of Dura Europos. New Haven

  • http://www.anonymousswisscollector.com/2014/06/paracas-past-looting-and-trafficking-of-mummy-bundle-textiles-from-peru.html

  • Lasaponara R, Masini N (2010) Facing the archaeological looting in Peru by local spatial autocorrelation statistics of Very high resolution satellite imagery. In: Taniar D et al (eds) Proceedings of ICSSA, The 2010 international conference on computational science and its application (Fukuoka-Japan, March 23–26, 2010). Springer, Berlin, pp 261–269

    Google Scholar 

  • Lasaponara R, Masini N (2016) Combating illegal excavations in Cahuachi: ancient problems and modern technologies. In: Lasaponara R, Masini N, Orefici G (eds) The Ancient Nasca world new insights from science and archaeology. Springer, Berlin, pp 605–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47052-8_25

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lasaponara R, Masini N (2017) Preserving the Past from Space: An Overview of Risk Estimation and Monitoring Tools. In: Masini N, Soldovieri F (eds) Sensing the past. From artifact to historical site. Springer, Berlin, pp 61–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50518-3_3

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lasaponara R, Danese M, Masini N (2012) Satellite-based monitoring of archaeological looting in Peru. In: Lasaponara R, Masini N (eds) Satellite remote sensing: a new tool for Archaeology. Springer, Berlin, pp 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8801-7_8. ISBN 978-90-481-8800-0

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lasaponara R, Leucci G, Masini N, Persico R (2014) Investigating archaeological looting using satellite images and GEORADAR: the experience in Lambayeque in North Peru. J Archaeol Sci 42:216–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lasaponara R, Leucci G, Masini N, Persico R, Scardozzi G (2016) Towards an operative use of remote sensing for exploring the past using satellite data: The case study of Hierapolis (Turkey). Remote Sens Environ 174:148–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.12.016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Looted Heritage (2016) Looted heritage monitoring the illicit antiquities trade. https://heritage.crowdmap.com/main. Accessed 26 Nov 2016

  • Orefici G (2012) Cahuachi. Capital Teocratica Nasca.” Lima: Universidad de San Martin de Porres

  • Parcak S (2007) Satellite remote sensing methods for monitoring archaeological tells in the Middle East. J Field Archaeol 32(1):65–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parcak S, Gathings D, Childs C, Mumford G, Cline E (2016) Satellite evidence of archaeological site looting in Egypt: 2002–2013. Antiquity 90:188–205. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2016.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Proulx BB (2013) Archaeological site looting in global prespective. Nature, scope and frequency. American Journal of Archaeology 117:111–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quijano J, Takahashi K, Deqitte B (2012) Numerical and observational study of the dynamics of the Paracas Wind, associated with aeolian transport into the ocean off the coast of Ica. Presentation at LMI-DISCOH Conference, Lima, 29–30th March 2012

  • Silverman H (1993) Cahuachi in the Ancient Nasca World. University of Iowa Pres, Iowa City

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone EC (2008) Patterns of looting in southern Iraq. Antiquity 82:125–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone EC (2015) An Update on the Looting of Archaeological Sites in Iraq. Near Eastern Archaeology 78(3):178–186

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tapete D, Cigna F, Donoghue DNM (2016) ‘Looting marks’ in space-borne SAR imagery: Measuring rates of archaeological looting in Apamea (Syria) with TerraSAR-X Staring Spotlight. Remote Sens Environ 178:42–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tarantino E, Figorito B (2014) Steerable filtering in interactivetracing of archaeological linear features using digital true colour aerialimages. International Journal of Digital Earth 7(11):870–880

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas DC, Kidd FJ, Nikolovski S, Zipfel C (2008) The archaeological sites of Afghanistan in google Earth. AARGnews 37:22–30

    Google Scholar 

  • UNESCO (1956) Recommendation on International Principles Applicable to Archaeological Excavations

  • UNESCO (1970) Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property

  • UNESCO (1972) General conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization meeting in Paris from 17 October to 21 November 1972, at its 17th session. http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/

  • UNITAR (2014) Satellite-based Damage Assessment to Cultural Heritage Sites in Syria. http://unosat.web.cern.ch/unosat/unitar/downloads/chs/Dura_Europos.pdf. Accessed 26 Nov 2016

  • United Nations Security Council (2015) Unanimously adopting resolution 2199, Security Council Condemns Trade with Al-Qaida Associated Groups, Threatens Further Targeted Sanctions. http://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sc11775.doc.htm. Accessed 26 Nov 2016

  • Van Ess M, Becker H, Fassbinder J, Kiefl R, Lingenfelder I, Schreier G, Zevenbergen A (2006) Detection of Looting Activities at Archaeological Sites in Iraq Using Ikonos Imagery. Angewandte Geoinformatik, Beiträge zum (18):668–678

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Research Council, CNR-IMAA (Institute of Institute of Methodologies for Environmental Analysis), C.da S. Loya, 85050, Tito Scalo, Italy

    Rosa Lasaponara

  2. National Research Council, CNR-IBAM (Institute of Archaeological and Monumental Heritage), C.da S. Loya, 85050, Tito Scalo, Italy

    Nicola Masini

Authors
  1. Rosa Lasaponara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nicola Masini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicola Masini.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lasaponara, R., Masini, N. Space-Based Identification of Archaeological Illegal Excavations and a New Automatic Method for Looting Feature Extraction in Desert Areas. Surv Geophys 39, 1323–1346 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-018-9480-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-018-9480-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation