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A Review of Pathways for Building Fire Spread in the Wildland Urban Interface Part II: Response of Components and Systems and Mitigation Strategies in the United States

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Abstract

Structure loss in wildland fires has significantly increased over the past few decades, affected by increased development in rural areas, changing fuel management policies, and climate change, all of which are projected to increase in the future. This paper is Part II of a two-part review, which presents a summary of fundamental and applied research on pathways to fire spread in the wildland urban interface. Part I discussed the fundamentals of wildland fire spread via radiative heat transfer, direct flame contact, and firebrand exposure. Here in Part II, we cover the response of building components and systems, as well as mitigation strategies used to prevent fire spread into and within communities in the United States. Post-fire investigations, full-scale structural testing, individual component testing, and combined systems or assembly testing have been used to identify building component and system vulnerabilities such as roofs, vents, siding, decks, fences, and mulch. Using results from these tests and investigations at different scales, some knowledge has been gained on specific vulnerabilities and the effectiveness of mitigation strategies, but a quantitative framework has not yet been established. On a community level, the layout of structures and the space between them has been shown to be incredibly important in mitigating wildfire risk. More locally, defensible space around homes has been effective in mitigating exposure from both radiation and direct flame contact. Firebrands still remain a challenge; however, many design recommendations have been proposed to harden structures against firebrand exposures. Recommendations for future research and development are also presented.

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Notes

  1. Firewise is a community program which provides resources for wildland fire preparedness, including recommended practices, local community programs, etc. (http://www.firewise.org).

  2. Note that these zones are designed solely to mitigate ignitions by radiation or direct flame contact, as firebrands are known to travel up to several miles and cannot be stopped by breaks in vegetation.

  3. Ready, Set, Go! emphasizes communications between fire departments and residents in WUI areas and is organized by the Internation Association of Fire Chiefs. More information can be found at: http://www.wildlandfirersg.org/.

  4. Fire Adapted Communities provides resources for residents to protect their own homes and communities. More information is available at: http://www.fireadapted.org/.

  5. The Fire Safe Council is a California non-profit organization which provides information on community wildfire protection plans. More information is available at: http://www.cafiresafecouncil.org/.

  6. Living with Fire is a Nevada organization which provides recommendations to homeowners on decreasing their risk. More information is available at: http://www.livingwithfire.info/.

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the National Fire Protection Association, Fire Protection Research Foundation, the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology under financial assistance award 70NANB15H176, and the Joint Fire Science Program under project JFSP 15-1-04-4 for financial support of this project. They would also like to thank Casey Grant for his efforts coordinating this project, Kyle Kohler for his assistance compiling data, and comments from many experts in the field, especially Randall Bradley, Nelson Bryner, Jack Cohen, Ryan Depew, Steve Gage, Samuel Manzello, Alexander Maranghides, Don Oaks, Stephen Quarles, Michele Steinberg, Kevin Tolhurst and Rick Swan.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, 3106 J.M. Patterson Building, College Park, MD, 20742-3031, USA

    Raquel S. P. Hakes, Sara E. Caton & Michael J. Gollner

  2. Engineering Laboratory, Fire Research Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Dr., Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA

    Sara E. Caton

  3. Fire Protection Research Foundation, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA, 02169-7471, USA

    Daniel J. Gorham

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  1. Raquel S. P. Hakes
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  2. Sara E. Caton
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  4. Michael J. Gollner
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Correspondence to Michael J. Gollner.

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Hakes, R.S.P., Caton, S.E., Gorham, D.J. et al. A Review of Pathways for Building Fire Spread in the Wildland Urban Interface Part II: Response of Components and Systems and Mitigation Strategies in the United States. Fire Technol 53, 475–515 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-016-0601-7

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