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Part-time employment: a comparative analysis of Spain and the Netherlands

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Abstract

Most industrialized countries have seen part-time employment as a percentage of total employment increasing in the last decade. This paper presents the results of a comparative study of part-time employment in Spain and the Netherlands. The project comprises a legal comparative study of the effectiveness of the normative solutions provided by the Dutch and Spanish legal orders regarding the protection of part-time workers and the promotion of part-time employment, with special attention paid to the gender dimension of part-time work in both countries; and an analysis, based on data extracted from the European Community Household Panel (1995–2001), of the determinants of part-time employment in both countries and an examination of the extent to which part-time jobs are used as stepping-stones to full-time positions. We have found significant country differences regarding females’ decisions to take part-time jobs. We also have found that, in general, Dutch females are not less likely than their male counterparts to increase the number of hours they work. However, this applies only to those females who are part of a couple or have children younger than 12 years. In Spain, females are 2.6 times less likely than their male counterparts to switch from a part-time to a full-time job.

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Notes

  1. Directive of 15 December 1997, OJ L 14 of 20/01/1998.

  2. Part-time, W. in Europe. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2005.

  3. ‘Polder model’ is the term used for the Dutch model of consensus whereby employers, syndicates and the government get together to make agreements about labour matters. The core of the model is the combination of a quiet and flexible labour market and a solid monetary and fiscal policy, and the introduction of more dynamic markets.

  4. Source: National Employment Institute—First term EPA (active population survey) 2004.

  5. EUROSTAT. (2005). News Release, 49/2005, 12.

  6. See, E.C. Gender Use of Time: Three European Studies, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 2000 and EC, Women at Work, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1999.

  7. EUROSTAT (ALIAGA, C.), « Gender gaps in the reconciliation between work and family life », Statistic in focus, Population and social conditions, 4/2005.

  8. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.(Burchell, B.), Gender, Jobs and Working Conditions in the EU, 2002.

  9. Source: European Social Statistics. Labour Force Survey 2002.

  10. OJ L 014 of 20 January 1998.

  11. In the ECJ judgment of 12/10/2004, C-313/02, Wippel (Rec. 2004, p. I-9483), the Court of Justice ruled that a worker with a contract of employment under which hours of work and the organization of working time are dependent on the quantity of available work and are determined only on a case-by-case basis by agreement between the parties comes within the scope of the Framework Agreement annexed to Council Directive 97/81/EC, unless a Member State has decided to exclude them, as workers working on a casual basis, wholly or partly, from the benefit of the terms of that agreement (clause 2.2 of the Framework Agreement on part-time work).

  12. Article 141 ECT and Council Directive 75/117/EEC of 10 February 1975 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the application of the principle of equal pay for men and women. OJ L 45 of 19.02.1975.

  13. Article 141 ECT and Council Directive 76/207/EEC of 9 February 1976 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions. OJ L 39 of 14.02.1976.

  14. Council Directive 79/7/EEC of 19 December 1978 on the progressive implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in matters of social security. OJ L 6, 10.01.1979 and Council Directive 86/378/EEC of 24 July 1986 on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in matters of occupational social security schemes. OJ L 225, 12.08.1986. Amended by Council Directive 96/97/EC of 20 December 1996. OJ L 46, 17.02.1997.

  15. See, inter alia, ECJ judgments of 13/07/1989, Rinner-Kühn/FWW Spezial-Gebäudereinigung, 171/84 (Rec. 1989, p. 2743); of 27/06/1990, Kowalska/Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, C-33/89 (Rec. 1990, p. I-2591) and of 07/02/1991, Nimz/Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, C-184/89 (Rec. 1991, p. I-297).

  16. See, inter alia, ECJ Judgments of 04/06/1992, Arbeiterwohlfahrt der Stadt Berlin/Bötel (Rec. 1992, p. I-3589); of 06/02/1996, Kuratorium für Dialyse und Nierentransplantation/Lewark (Rec. 1996, p. I-243); of 02/10/1997, Gerster/Freistaat Bayern, C-1/95, (Rec. 1997, p. I-5253); of 20/03/2003, Kutz-Bauer, C-187/00, (Rec. 2003, p. I-2741) and of 11/09/2003, Steinicke, C-77/02, (Rec. 2003, p. I-9027).

  17. ECJ judgments of 28/09/1994, Fisscher/Voorhuis Hengelo and Stichting Bedrijfspensioenfonds, C-128/93, (Rec. 1994, p. I-4583); of 28/09/1994, Vroege/NCIV, C-57/93, (Rec. 1994, p. I-4541); of 10 February 2000. Deutsche Telekom AG v Agnes Vick (C-234/96) and Ute Conze (C-235/96). Joined cases C-234/96 and C-235/96, (Rec. 2000, p. I-00799) and of 23/10/2003, Schönheit, C-04/02 (Rec. 2003, p. I-12575).

  18. See the contradictory rulings of the ECJ in the similar cases: Judgment of 09/09/2003, Rinke, C-25/02 (Rec. 2003, p. I-8349) and Judgment of 02/10/1997, Kording/Senator für Finanzen, C-100/95, (Rec. 1997, p. I-5289).

  19. Council Directive 96/34/EC of 3 June 1996 on the framework agreement on parental leave concluded by UNICE, CEEP and the ETUC. OJ L 145, 19.06.1996.

  20. Of 15 December 1997.

  21. ECJ judgment of 11 September 2003, C-77/02, Steinicke (Rec. 2003, p. I-9027).

  22. The principle of substantive equality has been acknowledged by the ECJ on several occasions. In the EU context, equality of opportunities is considered equivalent to substantive equality. Thus, all sorts of preferential treatment measures allowed by Community law provisions are considered an exception to the equal treatment rule. In relation to this matter, it can be argued that a positive action measure should be considered the corollary of the Member States’ obligation to promote real equality amongst their citizens, from an individual as well as from a collective perspective, by way of removing obstacles that hinder their full participation in political, economic and social life (as in Article 9.2 of the Spanish Constitution).

  23. Wet op de Ondernemingsraden van 29/01/1971, Stb. 1971, 54.

  24. Of 03/07/1996, Stb. 391.

  25. Burgerlijk Wetboek, Wet van 11/12/1958.

  26. See, inter alia, Oordeel 2003-7 van de Commissie Gelijke Behandeling 14/01/2003 and Oordeel 2003-155 van de Commissie Gelijke Behandeling 16/12/2003.

  27. Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, Equal treatment in the Netherlands, Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, The Hague, March 2003, p. 24.

  28. Of 19/02/2000, Stb. 114.

  29. This conclusion can be inferred from the case law interpreting this Act: Rechtbank Zwolle, Sector Kanton, 12/10/200, KG 200, p. 235; Rechtbank Haarlem, sector Kanton, 12/05/2001, JAR 2001, p. 117; Kantonrechter (Ktr.) Groningen 23/03/2001, JAR 2001, p. 87; Ktr. Haarlem 17/05/2001, JAR 2001, p. 117; Ktr. Breda 30/03/2001, JAR 2001, p. 85; Ktr. Maastricht 02/02/2001, JAR 2001, p.49 and Rechtbank Groningen, sector Kanton, 23/03/2001, JAR 2002, p. 140.

  30. See Werkloosheidswet of 19/12/2003. Stb. 544.

  31. Of 03/12/1993, BOE 07/12/1993.

  32. Of 14/05/1994, BOE 23/05/1994.

  33. Royal Law Decree 5/2001, of 02.03/2001, BOE 03/03/2001.

  34. Ley del Estatuto de los Trabajadores, approved by Royal Legislative Decree 1/1995, of 24/03/1995, BOE 29/03/1995.

  35. In accordance with article 12.4.b LET, part-time workers have the same rights as full-time employees and these rights should be acknowledged by the laws, regulations and collective bargaining agreements, when their nature so requires, according to the amount of time worked. Therefore, the very nature of the right will determine whether the principle of pro rata temporis should apply or whether it should be enjoyed in the same conditions as those applicable to full-time employees. For instance, proportionality cannot be applied in retributive matters when dealing with non-wage benefits of an indemnifying nature (i.e. accommodation, maintenance or travel allowances).

  36. See Additional Disposition 7 of the General Social Security Act of (Ley General de la Seguridad Social, approved by Legislative Royal Decree 1/1994, of 20/06/1994, BOE 29/06/1994) and Royal Law Decree 15/1998, of 27 November, BOE 28/11/98.

  37. STC 253/2004, of 22/12/2004.

  38. BOE 28/11/98.

  39. In order to avoid a misuse of this correcting formula, there is a provision ruling that in any case the number of contributed days obtained by the applicability of this formula can never be higher than the number of contributed days that would be obtained had the work been performed on a full-time basis.

  40. ECJ Judgment of 23 October 2003, joined cases C-4/02 and C-5/02, Schönheit.

  41. This situation is exacerbated by the adoption of a new act (Wet Kinderopvang of 09/07/2004, Stb. 2004, 55, 29/10/2004) that transfers to families most of the financial burden of caring for minors. This growth in family expenditure is compensated for by means of tax deductions.

  42. This act is intended to respond to workers’ preferences as regards working time adjustments, reflected in some reports about the labour market. See Trendarapport aanbod arbeid. OSA, The Hague, 1999.

  43. See Evaluation Wet aanpassing arbeidsduur (Waa), Tweede Kamer, vergaderjaar 2003-2004, 29503, nr. 1. This report was accompanied by two further studies by the labour inspectorate into the impact of the Waa in collective agreements and on the case law related to the Waa.

  44. According to the study of Portegijs.W., Hermans, B., and Lalta, V., Emancipatiemonitor 2006. Den Haag: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau/Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, the average working hours of female employees has dropped slightly from 25.2 h per week in 2003 to 24.9 h in 2005.

  45. Most of the existing legislative measures in this field will be repealed by the new recast Directive on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment of men and women in matters of employment and occupation. See the common position of the Council and the European Parliament concerning the recast version of the equal treatment Directive in COM (2006) 108 final.

  46. In particular, those individuals who are living in a couple are about twice as likely to switch from part- to full-time employment.

  47. This flexibility has led to a neglected applicability of the right to request an adjustment in the contractual working time in small undertakings. Thus, the report on the evaluation of the Wet aanpassing arbeidsduur points out the need to intensify the information provided to those undertakings on that regard.

  48. Parliamentary Documents, I 1999–2000, pp. 634–635.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departamento de Análisis Económico: Teoría Económica e Historia Económica, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

    Maite Blázquez Cuesta

  2. AIAS, Universiteit van Amsterdam/Hugo Sinzheimer Instituut, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Nuria Elena Ramos Martín

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  1. Maite Blázquez Cuesta
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Correspondence to Maite Blázquez Cuesta.

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M. Blázquez Cuesta started work on this paper while she was affiliated to the Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Labour Studies (AIAS), Universiteit van Amsterdam, as a postdoc researcher.

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Cuesta, M.B., Martín, N.E.R. Part-time employment: a comparative analysis of Spain and the Netherlands. Eur J Law Econ 28, 223–256 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10657-009-9109-7

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