Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The nitrate time bomb: a numerical way to investigate nitrate storage and lag time in the unsaturated zone

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Environmental Geochemistry and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Nitrate pollution in groundwater, which is mainly from agricultural activities, remains an international problem. It threatens the environment, economics and human health. There is a rising trend in nitrate concentrations in many UK groundwater bodies. Research has shown it can take decades for leached nitrate from the soil to discharge into groundwater and surface water due to the ‘store’ of nitrate and its potentially long travel time in the unsaturated and saturated zones. However, this time lag is rarely considered in current water nitrate management and policy development. The aim of this study was to develop a catchment-scale integrated numerical method to investigate the nitrate lag time in the groundwater system, and the Eden Valley, UK, was selected as a case study area. The method involves three models, namely the nitrate time bomb—a process-based model to simulate the nitrate transport in the unsaturated zone (USZ), GISGroundwater—a GISGroundwater flow model, and N-FM—a model to simulate the nitrate transport in the saturated zone. This study answers the scientific questions of when the nitrate currently in the groundwater was loaded into the unsaturated zones and eventually reached the water table; is the rising groundwater nitrate concentration in the study area caused by historic nitrate load; what caused the uneven distribution of groundwater nitrate concentration in the study area; and whether the historic peak nitrate loading has reached the water table in the area. The groundwater nitrate in the area was mainly from the 1980s to 2000s, whilst the groundwater nitrate in most of the source protection zones leached into the system during 1940s–1970s; the large and spatially variable thickness of the USZ is one of the major reasons for unevenly distributed groundwater nitrate concentrations in the study area; the peak nitrate loading around 1983 has affected most of the study area. For areas around the Bowscar, Beacon Edge, Low Plains, Nord Vue, Dale Springs, Gamblesby, Bankwood Springs, and Cliburn, the peak nitrate loading will arrive at the water table in the next 34 years; statistical analysis shows that 8.7 % of the Penrith Sandstone and 7.3 % of the St Bees Sandstone have not been affected by peak nitrate. This research can improve the scientific understanding of nitrate processes in the groundwater system and support the effective management of groundwater nitrate pollution for the study area. With a limited number of parameters, the method and models developed in this study are readily transferable to other areas.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Addiscott, T. M. (2005). Nitrate, Agriculture and the Environment (p. 279). Wallingford: CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Addiscott, T. M., Whitmore, A. P., & Powlson, D. S. (1991). Farming, Fertilizers and the nitrate problem (p. 170). Wallingford: CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, D. J., Brewerton, L. J., Coleby, L. M., Gibbs, B. R., Lewis, M. A., MacDonald, A. M., Wagstaff, S. J., & Williams, A. T. (1997). The physical properties of major aquifers in England and Wales. British Geological Survey Technical Report WD/97/34. Keyworth, Nottingham: Environment Agency R&D Publication 8, British Geological Survey.

  • Almasri, M. N., & Kaluarachchi, J. J. (2007). Modeling nitrate contamination of groundwater in agricultural watersheds. Journal of Hydrology, 343, 211–229.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arthurton, R. S., Burgess, I. C., & Holliday, D. W. (1978). Permian and Triassic in: The geology of the Lake District edited by F Moseley. Yorks Geological Society Occasional Publication No 3.

  • Arthurton, R. S., & Wadge, A. J. (1981). Geology of the Country around Penrith. Memoir for 1:50,000 geological sheet 24. British Geological Survey, NERC. London: HMSO.

  • Brouyère, S. B., Dassargues, A., & Hallet, V. (2004). Migration of contaminants through the unsaturated zone overlying the Hesbaye chalky aquifer in Belgium: a field investigation. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 72, 135–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryan, N. S. (2006). Nitrite in nitric oxide biology: Cause or consequence? A systems-based review. Free Radical Biology & Medicine, 41, 691–701.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burt, T. P., Howden, N. J., Worrall, F., Whelan, M. J., & Bieroza, M. (2011). Nitrate in United Kingdom rivers: Policy and its outcomes since 1970. Environmental Science and Technology, 45, 175–181.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, A. S., Lawrence, A. R., Jackson, C., Cunningham, J., Cullis, E., Hasan, K., & Ingram, J. (2003). Investigation of rising nitrate concentrations in groundwater in the Eden valley, Cumbria. Scoping study. Environment Agency R&D Report NC/00/24/14.

  • Butcher, A., Lawrence, A., Mansour, M., Burke, S., Ingram, J., & Merrin, P. (2008). Investigation of rising nitrate concentrations in groundwater in the Eden Valley, Cumbria. 2, unsaturated zone studies. British Geological Survey, 37 pp. BGS Commissioned Report OR/08/023.

  • Butcher, A. S., Lawrence, A. R., Tribe, E., Hannay, S., Hasan, K., Merrin, P. (2005). Investigation of rising nitrate concentrations in groundwater in the Eden valley, Cumbria. Summary Report 1: Catchment Water Quality Survey. BGS Commissioned Report CR/05/258 N.

  • Campbell, J. D., Kotloff, K. L., et al. (2004). Invasive pneumococcal infections among hospitalised children in Bamko, Mali. Paediatric Disease Journal, 23, 642–649.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daily, P., Ingram, J., & Johnson, R. (2006). Groundwater quality review: The Permo–Triassic sandstone aquifers of the Eden valley and carlisle basin groundwater quality monitoring unit. Environment Agency Report, 6438A R1.

  • DEFRA. (2002). Agriculture and water: A diffuse pollution review. London: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • DEFRA. (2006a). Post-conciliation partial regulatory impact assessment. Groundwater proposals under Article 17 of the Water Framework Directive. Draft Final Report. London: DEFRA.

  • DEFRA. (2006b). Nitrates in water—the current status in England (2006). ADAS report to Defra—supporting paper D1 for the consultation on implementation of the Nitrates Directive in England.

  • ESI. (2004). Groundwater levels in the North West region. ESI report 6189A.

  • European Environment Agency. (2000). Groundwater quality and quantity in Europe. Environmental Assessment Report, 3.

  • Foster, S. S. D. (1993). The Chalk aquifer- its vulnerability to pollution. In R. A. Downing, M. Price, & G. P. Jones (Eds.), The hydrogeology of the chalk of North-West Europe (pp. 1–13). Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, S. S. D. (2000). Assessing and controlling the impacts of agriculture on groundwater—From barley barons to beef bans. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 33, 263–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, S. S. D., & Crease, R. I. (1974). Nitrate pollution of Chalk groundwater in East Yorkshire—A hydrogeological appraisal. Journal of the Institute of Water Engineer, 28, 178–194.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, S. S. D., Cripps, A. C., & Smith-Carington, A. K. (1982). Nitrate leaching to groundwater. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 296, 477–489.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Geake, A. K., & Foster, S. S. D. (1989). Sequential isotope and solute profiling in the unsaturated zone of British Chalk. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 34, 79–95.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann, M., Johnsson, H., Gustafson, A., & Grimvall, A. (2000). Leaching of nitrogen in Swedish agriculture—A historical perspective. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 80, 277–290.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Howden, N. J. K., Burt, T. P., Worrall, F., Mathias, S., & Whelan, M. J. (2011). Nitrate pollution in intensively farmed regions: What are the prospects for sustaining high-quality groundwater? Water Resource Research, 47, W00L02.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, B. M., Wheater, H. S., Wade, A. J., Butterfield, D., Mathias, S. A., Ireson, A. M., et al. (2007). Catchment-scale modelling of flow and nutrient transport in the Chalk unsaturated zone. Ecological Modelling, 209, 41–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahrl, F., Yunju, L., Roland-Holst, D., Jianchu, X., Zilberman, D. (2010). Toward sustainable use of nitrogen fertilizers in china. ARE Update, 14(2), 5–7. University of California Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinniburgh, D. G., Gale, I. N., Gooddy, D. C., Darling, W. G., Marks, R. J., Gibbs, B. R., Coleby, L. M., Bird, M. J., & West, J. M. (1994). Denitrification in the unsaturated zones of the British Chalk and Sherwood Sandstone aquifers. British Geological Survey Technical Report WD/99/2.

  • Krause, S., Jacobs, J., Voss, A., Bronstert, A., & Zehe, E. (2008). Assessing the impact of changes in landuse and management practices on the diffuse pollution and retention of nitrate in a riparian floodplain. Science of the Total Environment, 389, 149–164.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lake, I. R., Lovett, A. A., Hiscock, K. M., Betson, M., Foley, A., Sünnenberg, G., et al. (2003). Evaluating factors influencing groundwater vulnerability to nitrate pollution: Developing the potential of GIS. Journal of Environmental Management, 68, 315–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, A. R., & Foster, S. S. D. (1986). Denitrification in a limestone aquifer in relation to the security of low-nitrate groundwater supplies. Journal of the Institute of Water Engineering Sciences, 40, 159–172.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ledoux, E., Gomez, E., Monget, J. M., Viavattene, C., Viennot, P., Ducharne, A., et al. (2007). Agriculture and groundwater nitrate contamination in the Seine basin. The STICS–MODCOU modelling chain. Science of the Total Environment, 375, 33–47.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, E. I., Johnson, P. A., & Archer, J. R. (1999). Nitrate sensitive areas: A study of large scale control of nitrate loss in England. Soil Use and Management, 15, 201–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Millward, D., & McCormac, M. (2003). Geology of the Appleby district. An explanation of the geological map Sheet 30 Appleby. British Geological Survey.

  • Oakes, D. B., Young, C. P., & Foster, S. S. D. (1981). The effects of farming practices on groundwater quality in the United Kingdom. Science of the Total Environment, 21, 17–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, R. C. (1987). Groundwater vulnerability (7 maps and booklets covering Severn-Trent Water Authority area). Cranfield: Soil Survey and Land Research Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, C. K. (1978). Hydrogeology. In: F. Moseley (Ed.), The geology of the Lake District. Yorkshire Geological Society (Occasional Publication No. 3).

  • Pretty, J. N., Brett, C., Gee, D., Hine, R. E., Mason, C. F., Morison, J. I. L., et al. (2000). An assessment of the total external costs of UK agriculture. Agricultural Systems, 65(2), 113–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivett, M. O., Smith, J. N. W., Buss, S. R., & Morgan, P. (2007). Nitrate occurrence and attenuation in the major aquifers of England and Wales. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 40, 335–352.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spears, D. A. (1979). Porewater composition in the unsaturated zone of the Chalk, with particular reference to nitrates. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 12, 97–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stuart, M. E., Chilton, P. J., Kinniburgh, D. G., & Cooper, D. M. (2007). Screening for long-term trends in groundwater nitrate monitoring data. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 40, 361–376.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, L., Mansour, M., & Hughes A. (2010). Description of the GIS based regional groundwater flow model. Internal Report IR/10/070. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, UK.

  • Wang, L., Stuart, M. E., Bloomfield, J. P., Butcher, A. S., Gooddy, D. C., McKenzie, A. A., et al. (2012). Prediction of the arrival of peak nitrate concentrations at the water table at the regional scale in Great Britain. Hydrological Processes, 26, 226–239.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, L., & Yang, Y. S. (2008). An approach to catchment-scale groundwater nitrate risk assessment from diffuse agricultural sources: a case study in the Upper Bann. Northern Ireland, Hydrological Processes, 22(21), 4274–4286.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, Y. S., & Wang, L. (2010) Catchment-scale vulnerability assessment of groundwater pollution from diffuse sources using the DRASTIC method: a case study. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 55(7), 1206–1216. doi:10.1080/02626667.2010.508872.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, C. Y., Wu, D. C., & Chang, C. C. (2007). Nitrate in drinking water and risk of death from colon cancer in Taiwan. Environment International, 33(5), 649–653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, C. P., Oakes, D. B., & Wilkinson, W. B. (1976). Prediction of future nitrate concentrations in groundwater. Ground Water, 14, 426–438.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to CEH and the Environment Agency of England & Wales for providing data sets for this study. Ann T. Williams is acknowledged for her help in reviewing this paper. The work described has been funded by the British Geological Survey (Natural Environment Research Council), and this paper is published with the permission of the Executive Director of the British Geological Survey (Natural Environment Research Council).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The guest editors/authors declare that they have no conflict of interest with the conference sponsors.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK

    L. Wang

  2. British Geological Survey, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK

    A. S. Butcher, M. E. Stuart, D. C. Gooddy & J. P. Bloomfield

Authors
  1. L. Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. S. Butcher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. M. E. Stuart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. D. C. Gooddy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. J. P. Bloomfield
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to L. Wang.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wang, L., Butcher, A.S., Stuart, M.E. et al. The nitrate time bomb: a numerical way to investigate nitrate storage and lag time in the unsaturated zone. Environ Geochem Health 35, 667–681 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9550-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9550-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation