Abstract
Obesity has become an epidemic worldwide. It is accompanied by a multitude of medical complications including metabolic syndrome. Obesity may lead to fatty infiltration of multiple internal organs including liver, heart, kidney, and pancreas, causing organ dysfunctions. Fatty infiltration leads to chronic inflammation and tissue damage. Fatty infiltration in the liver results in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, which is increasingly common nowadays. Recent studies in animals and humans indicate that obesity also is associated with fatty infiltration of gallbladder, resulting in cholecystosteatosis. The increased gallbladder lipids include free fatty acids, phospholipids, and triglycerides. Enhanced inflammation with an increased amount of fat in the gallbladder results in an abnormal wall structure and decreased contractility. In support of this notion, a recent experiment on the effect of Ezetimibe, which is a novel drug that inhibits intestinal fat absorption, on fatty gallbladder disease reveals that Ezetimibe can ameliorate cholecystosteatosis and restore in vivo gallbladder contractility. The proportion of cholecystectomies performed for chronic acalculous cholecystitis has increased significantly over the past two decades. An increase in gallbladder fat, which leads to poor gallbladder emptying and biliary symptoms, may partly explain this phenomenon. Although dietary carbohydrates have been demonstrated to be associated with fatty gallbladder disease, other potential modifiable environmental factors are not clear. The pathogenesis and prognosis of fatty gallbladder disease, including steatocholecystitis, and the relations of fatty gallbladder disease to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, including steatohepatitis, and other components of metabolic syndrome are largely unknown. More research is needed to answer these questions.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ogden CL, Yanovski SZ, Carroll MD, et al. The epidemiology of obesity. Gastroenterology. 2007;132(6):2087–2102. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2007.03.052.
Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, et al. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA. 2003;289(1):76–79. doi:10.1001/jama.289.1.76.
Li C, Ford ES, McGuire LC, et al. Increasing trends in waist circumference and abdominal obesity among US adults. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007;15(1):216–224. doi:10.1038/oby.2007.505.
Ford ES, Giles WH, Mokdad AH. Increasing prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US Adults. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(10):2444–2449. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.10.2444.
Bergman RN, Kim SP, Hsu IR, Catalano KJ, et al. Abdominal obesity: role in the pathophysiology of metabolic disease and cardiovascular risk. Am J Med. 2007;120(suppl 1(2)):S3–S8. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.11.012.
Lann D, LeRoith D. Insulin resistance as the underlying cause for the metabolic syndrome. Med Clin North Am. 2007;91(6):1063–1077. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2007.06.012. viii.
de Luca C, Olefsky JM. Inflammation and insulin resistance. FEBS Lett. 2008;582(1):97–105. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2007.11.057.
Bastard JP, Maachi M, Lagathu C, et al. Recent advances in the relationship between obesity, inflammation, and insulin resistance. Eur Cytokine Netw. 2006;17(1):4–12.
Ruhl CE, Everhart JE. Association of diabetes, serum insulin, and C-peptide with gallbladder disease. Hepatology. 2000;31(2):299–303. doi:10.1002/hep.510310206.
Nervi F, Miquel JF, Alvarez M, et al. Gallbladder disease is associated with insulin resistance in a high risk Hispanic population. J Hepatol. 2006;45(2):299–305. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2006.01.026.
Szczepaniak LS, Victor RG, Orci L, et al. Forgotten but not gone: the rediscovery of fatty heart, the most common unrecognized disease in America. Circ Res. 2007;101(8):759–767. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.107.160457.
Pitt HA. Hepato-pancreato-biliary fat: the good, the bad and the ugly. HPB (Oxford). 2007;9(2):92–97. doi:10.1080/13651820701286177.
Antuna-Puente B, Feve B, Fellahi S, et al. Adipokines: the missing link between insulin resistance and obesity. Diabetes Metab. 2008;34(1):2–11.
Angulo P. Obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nutr Rev. 2007;65(6 Pt 2):S57–S63. doi:10.1301/nr.2007.jun.S57-S63.
Clark JM. The epidemiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in adults. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;40(suppl 1):S5–S10.
Edmison J, McCullough AJ. Pathogenesis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: human data. Clin Liver Dis. 2007;11(1):75–104. doi:10.1016/j.cld.2007.02.011. ix.
Yeh MM, Brunt EM. Pathology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Am J Clin Pathol. 2007;128(5):837–847. doi:10.1309/RTPM1PY6YGBL2G2R.
Tsai CJ, Leitzmann MF, Willett WC, et al. Prospective study of abdominal adiposity and gallstone disease in US men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80(1):38–44.
Grundy SM. Cholesterol gallstones: a fellow traveler with metabolic syndrome? Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80(1):1–2.
Tsai CJ, Leitzmann MF, Willett WC, et al. Central adiposity, regional fat distribution, and the risk of cholecystectomy in women. Gut. 2006;55(5):708–714. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.076133.
Goldblatt MI, Swartz-Basile DA, Al-Azzawi HH, et al. Nonalcoholic fatty gallbladder disease: the influence of diet in lean and obese mice. J Gastrointest Surg. 2006;10(2):193–201. doi:10.1016/j.gassur.2005.07.009.
Hsu IR, Kim SP, Kabir M, et al. Metabolic syndrome, hyperinsulinemia, and cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(3):s867–s871.
El-Serag H. Role of obesity in GORD-related disorders. Gut. 2008;57(3):281–284. doi:10.1136/gut.2007.127878.
Fontana L, Klein S. Aging, adiposity, and calorie restriction. JAMA. 2007;297(9):986–994. doi:10.1001/jama.297.9.986.
Weiss R. Fat distribution and storage: how much, where, and how? Eur J Endocrinol. 2007;157(suppl 1):S39–S45. doi:10.1530/EJE-07-0125.
Arner P. Not all fat is alike. Lancet. 1998;351(9112):1301–1302. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79052-8.
Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection. Evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;106:3143–3421.
Yudkin JS. Inflammation, obesity, and the metabolic syndrome. Horm Metab Res. 2007;39(10):707–709. doi:10.1055/s-2007-985898.
Schäffler A, Schölmerich J, Büchler C. Mechanisms of disease: adipocytokines and visceral adipose tissue—emerging role in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;2(6):273–280. doi:10.1038/ncpgasthep0186.
Pou KM, Massaro JM, Hoffmann U, et al. Visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue volumes are cross-sectionally related to markers of inflammation and oxidative stress: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2007;116(11):1234–1241. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.710509.
You T, Nicklas BJ. Chronic inflammation: role of adipose tissue and modulation by weight loss. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2006;2(1):29–37. doi:10.2174/157339906775473626.
Hamdy O, Porramatikul S, Al-Ozairi E. Metabolic obesity: the paradox between visceral and subcutaneous fat. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2006;2(4):367–373.
Bergman RN, Kim SP, Catalano KJ, et al. Why visceral fat is bad: mechanisms of the metabolic syndrome. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14(suppl 1):16S–19S. doi:10.1038/oby.2006.277.
Matsuzawa Y, Shimomura I, Kihara S, et al. Importance of adipocytokines in obesity-related diseases. Horm Res. 2003;60(suppl 3):56–59. doi:10.1159/000074502.
Keus F, de Jong JA, Gooszen HG, et al. Laparoscopic versus open cholecystectomy for patients with symptomatic cholecystolithiasis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(4):CD006231.
Aidonopoulos AP, Papavramidis ST, Zaraboukas TG, et al. Gallbladder findings after cholecystectomy in morbidly obese patients. Obes Surg. 1994;4(1):8–12. doi:10.1381/096089294765558827.
Everhart JE. Contributions of obesity and weight loss to gallstone disease. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119(10):1029–1035.
Haffner SM, Diehl AK, Stern MP, et al. Central adiposity and gallbladder disease in Mexican Americans. Am J Epidemiol. 1989;129(3):587–595.
Dittrick GW, Thompson JS, Campos D, et al. Gallbladder pathology in morbid obesity. Obes Surg. 2005;15(2):238–242. doi:10.1381/0960892053268273.
Ruhl CE, Everhart JE. Relationship of serum leptin concentration and other measures of adiposity with gallbladder disease. Hepatology. 2001;34:877–883. doi:10.1053/jhep.2001.29005.
Heaton KW, Braddon FEM, Emmett PM, et al. Why do men get gallstones? Roles of abdominal fat and hyperinsulinemia. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1991;3:745–751.
Hendel HW, Højgaard L, Andersen T, et al. Fasting gall bladder volume and lithogenicity in relation to glucose tolerance, total and intra-abdominal fat masses in obese non-diabetic subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1998;22(4):294–302. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0800583.
Petroni ML. Gallbladder motor function in obesity. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2000;14(suppl 2):48–50. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2036.2000.014s2048.x.
Mathus-Vliegen EM, Van Ierland-Van Leeuwen ML, Terpstra A. Determinants of gallbladder kinetics in obesity. Dig Dis Sci. 2004;49(1):9–16. doi:10.1023/B:DDAS.0000011595.39555.c0.
Gielkens HA, Lam WF, Coenraad M, et al. Effect of insulin on basal and cholecystokinin-stimulated gallbladder motility in humans. J Hepatol. 1998;28:595–602. doi:10.1016/S0168-8278(98)80282-1.
Wright D, Sutherland L. Antioxidant supplemention in the treatment of skeletal muscle insulin resistance: potential mechanisms and clinical relevance. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2008;33(1):21–31. doi:10.1139/H07-155.
Portincasa P, Di Ciaula A, van Berge-Henegouwen GP. Smooth muscle function and dysfunction in gallbladder disease. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2004;6(2):151–162. doi:10.1007/s11894-004-0043-0.
Nepokroeff CM, Lakshmanan MR, Ness GC, et al. Regulation of the diurnal rhythm of rat liver beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase activity by insulin, glucagon, cyclic AMP and hydrocortisone. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1974;160:387–396. doi:10.1016/0003-9861(74)90412-3.
Chait A, Bierman EL, Albers JJ. Low-density lipoprotein receptor activity in cultured human skin fibroblasts. Mechanism of insulin-induced stimulation. J Clin Invest. 1979;64:1309–1319. doi:10.1172/JCI109587.
Nakeeb A, Comuzzie AG, Al-Azzawi H, et al. Insulin resistance causes human gallbladder dysmotility. J Gastrointest Surg. 2006;10(7):940–948. doi:10.1016/j.gassur.2006.04.005.
Tran KQ, Goldblatt MI, Swartz-Basile DA, et al. Diabetes and hyperlipidemia correlate with gallbladder contractility in leptin-related murine obesity. J Gastrointest Surg. 2003;7(7):857–862. doi:10.1007/s11605-003-0030-z.
Al-Azzawi HH, Mathur A, Lu D, et al. Resistin-like molecule alpha reduces gallbladder optimal tension. J Gastrointest Surg. 2007;11(1):95–100. doi:10.1007/s11605-006-0039-1.
George J, Baillie J. Biliary and gallbladder dyskinesia. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol. 2007;10(4):322–327. doi:10.1007/s11938-007-0075-2.
Mallon P, White J, McMenamin M, et al. Increased cholecystectomy rate in the laparoscopic era: a study of the potential causative factors. Surg Endosc. 2006;20(6):883–886. doi:10.1007/s00464-005-0598-3.
Johanning JM, Gruenberg JC. The changing face of cholecystectomy. Am Surg. 1998;64(7):643–647.
Al-Azzawi HH, Nakeeb A, Saxena R, et al. Cholecystosteatosis: an explanation for increased cholecystectomy rates. J Gastrointest Surg. 2007;11(7):835–842. doi:10.1007/s11605-007-0169-0.
Goldblatt MI, Swartz-Basile DA, Svatek CL, et al. Decreased gallbladder response in leptin-deficient obese mice. J Gastrointest Surg. 2002;6(3):438–442. doi:10.1016/S1091-255X(01)00046-4.
Graewin SJ, Kiely JM, Lu D, et al. Leptin regulates gallbladder genes related to gallstone pathogenesis in leptin-deficient mice. J Am Coll Surg. 2008;206(3):503–510.
Swartz-Basile DA, Lu D, Basile DP, et al. Leptin regulates gallbladder genes related to absorption and secretion. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2007;293(1):G84–G90. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00389.2006.
Patel SB. Ezetimibe: a novel cholesterol-lowering agent that highlights novel physiologic pathways. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2004;6:439–442. doi:10.1007/s11886-004-0052-5.
Mathur A, Walker JJ, Al-Azzawi HH, et al. Ezetimibe ameliorates cholecystosteatosis. Surgery. 2007;142(2):228–233. doi:10.1016/j.surg.2007.04.007.
Gilloteaux J, Tomasello LM, Elgison DA. Lipid deposits and lipo-mucosomes in human cholecystitis and epithelial metaplasia in chronic cholecystitis. Ultrastruct Pathol. 2003;27(5):313–321. doi:10.1080/716100787.
Mathur A, Al-Azzawi HH, Lu D, et al. Steatocholecystitis: the influence of obesity and dietary carbohydrates. J Surg Res. 2008;147(2):290–297. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2007.04.042.
Xiao ZL, Amaral J, Biancani P, et al. Impaired cytoprotective function of muscle in human gallbladders with cholesterol stones. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2005;288(3):G525–G532. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00261.2004.
Yu P, Chen Q, Biancani P, et al. Membrane cholesterol alters gallbladder muscle contractility in prairie dogs. Am J Physiol. 1996;271(1 Pt 1):G56–G61.
Chen Q, Amaral J, Biancani P, et al. Excess membrane cholesterol alters human gallbladder muscle contractility and membrane fluidity. Gastroenterology. 1999;116(3):678–685. doi:10.1016/S0016-5085(99)70190-3.
Xiao ZL, Chen Q, Amaral J, et al. CCK receptor dysfunction in muscle membranes from human gallbladders with cholesterol stones. Am J Physiol. 1999;276(6 Pt 1):G1401–G1407.
Tilg H, Hotamisligil GS. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: cytokine-adipokine interplay and regulation of insulin resistance. Gastroenterology. 2006;131(3):934–945. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2006.05.054.
Hotamisligil GS, Shargill NS, Spiegelman BM. Adipose expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha: direct role in obesity-linked insulin resistance. Science. 1993;259(5091):87–91. doi:10.1126/science.7678183.
Rege RV. Inflammatory cytokines alter human gallbladder epithelial cell absorption/secretion. J Gastrointest Surg. 2000;4(2):185–192. doi:10.1016/S1091-255X(00)80055-4.
Rege RV, Prystowsky JB. Inflammation and a thickened mucus layer in mice with cholesterol gallstones. J Surg Res. 1998;74(1):81–85. doi:10.1006/jsre.1997.5213.
Finzi L, Barbu V, Burgel PR, et al. MUC5AC, a gel-forming mucin accumulating in gallstone disease, is overproduced via an epidermal growth factor receptor pathway in the human gallbladder. Am J Pathol. 2006;169(6):2031–2041. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2006.060146.
Wang HH, Afdhal NH, Gendler SJ, et al. Evidence that gallbladder epithelial mucin enhances cholesterol cholelithogenesis in MUC1 transgenic mice. Gastroenterology. 2006;131(1):210–222. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2006.04.011.
Larsson SC, Wolk A. Obesity and the risk of gallbladder cancer: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 2007;96(9):1457–1461.
Renehan AG, Tyson M, Egger M, et al. Body-mass index and incidence of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Lancet. 2008;371(9612):569–578. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60269-X.
Bugianesi E. Steatosis, the metabolic syndrome and cancer. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;22(suppl 2):40–43. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02594.x.
Wistuba II, Gazdar AF. Gallbladder cancer: lessons from a rare tumour. Nat Rev Cancer. 2004;4(9):695–706. doi:10.1038/nrc1429.
Miller G, Jarnagin WR. Gallbladder carcinoma. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2008;34(3):306–312. doi:10.1016/j.ejso.2007.07.206.
Randi G, Franceschi S, La Vecchia C. Gallbladder cancer worldwide: geographical distribution and risk factors. Int J Cancer. 2006;118(7):1591–1602. doi:10.1002/ijc.21683.
Perwez Hussain S, Harris CC. Inflammation and cancer: an ancient link with novel potentials. Int J Cancer. 2007;121(11):2373–2380. doi:10.1002/ijc.23173.
Ying L, Hofseth LJ. An emerging role for endothelial nitric oxide synthase in chronic inflammation and cancer. Cancer Res. 2007;67(4):1407–1410. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-2149.
Kanoh K, Shimura T, Tsutsumi S, et al. Significance of contracted cholecystitis lesions as high risk for gallbladder carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett. 2001;169(1):7–14. doi:10.1016/S0304-3835(01)00523-7.
Kitasato A, Tajima Y, Kuroki T, et al. Inflammatory cytokines promote inducible nitric oxide synthase-mediated DNA damage in hamster gallbladder epithelial cells. World J Gastroenterol. 2007;13(47):6379–6384. doi:10.3748/wjg.13.6379.
Kawanishi S, Hiraku Y, Pinlaor S, et al. Oxidative and nitrative DNA damage in animals and patients with inflammatory diseases in relation to inflammation-related carcinogenesis. Biol Chem. 2006;387(4):365–372. doi:10.1515/BC.2006.049.
Sawa T, Ohshima H. Nitrative DNA damage in inflammation and its possible role in carcinogenesis. Nitric Oxide. 2006;14(2):91–100. doi:10.1016/j.niox.2005.06.005.
Bugianesi E. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and cancer. Clin Liver Dis. 2007;11(1):191–207. doi:10.1016/j.cld.2007.02.006. x-xi.
Marra F, Gastaldelli A, Svegliati Baroni G, et al. Molecular basis and mechanisms of progression of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Trends Mol Med. 2008;14(2):72–81. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2007.12.003.
Tsai CJ, Leitzmann MF, Willett WC, et al. Glycemic load, glycemic index, and carbohydrate intake in relation to risk of cholecystectomy in women. Gastroenterology. 2005;129(1):105–112. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.05.016.
Ko CW, Lee SP. Dietary carbohydrates and gallstones: is there a link? Gastroenterology. 2005;129(1):373–375. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.05.042.
Tsai CJ, Leitzmann MF, Willett WC, et al. Dietary carbohydrates and glycaemic load and the incidence of symptomatic gall stone disease in men. Gut. 2005;54(6):823–828. doi:10.1136/gut.2003.031435.
Shea JA, Berlin JA, Bachwich DR, et al. Indications for and outcomes of cholecystectomy: a comparison of the pre- and post-laparoscopic eras. Ann Surg. 1998;227(3):343–350. doi:10.1097/00000658-199803000-00005.
Escarce JJ, Chen W, Schwartz JS. Falling cholecystectomy thresholds since the introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. JAMA. 1995;273(20):1581–1585. doi:10.1001/jama.273.20.1581.
McGavock JM, Lingvay I, Zib I, et al. Cardiac steatosis in diabetes mellitus: a 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Circulation. 2007;116(10):1170–1175. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.645614.
Reingold JS, McGavock JM, Kaka S, et al. Determination of triglyceride in the human myocardium by magnetic resonance spectroscopy: reproducibility and sensitivity of the method. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2005;289(5):E935–E939. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00095.2005.
Szczepaniak LS, Dobbins RL, Metzger GJ, et al. Myocardial triglycerides and systolic function in humans: in vivo evaluation by localized proton spectroscopy and cardiac imaging. Magn Reson Med. 2003;49(3):417–423. doi:10.1002/mrm.10372.
Thomas EL, Hamilton G, Patel N, et al. Hepatic triglyceride content and its relation to body adiposity: a magnetic resonance imaging and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Gut. 2005;54(1):122–127. doi:10.1136/gut.2003.036566.
Szczepaniak LS, Nurenberg P, Leonard D, et al. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure hepatic triglyceride content: prevalence of hepatic steatosis in the general population. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2005;288(2):E462–E468. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00064.2004.
Szczepaniak LS, Dobbins RL, Stein DT, et al. Bulk magnetic susceptibility effects on the assessment of intra- and extra-myocellular lipids in vivo. Magn Reson Med. 2002;47(3):607–610. doi:10.1002/mrm.10086.
Boesch C, Slotboom J, Hoppeler H, et al. In vivo determination of intra-myocellular lipids in human muscle by means of localized 1H-MR-spectroscopy. Magn Reson Med. 1997;37(4):484–493. doi:10.1002/mrm.1910370403.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tsai, CJ. Steatocholecystitis and Fatty Gallbladder Disease. Dig Dis Sci 54, 1857–1863 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-008-0578-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-008-0578-2