Abstract
The increasing popularity of the Internet and social media has generated concerns and disputes about their effects on brain, behavior, and relationships. While many positive outcomes are associated with cybercommunication, some individuals experience negative consequences. This, in turn, has roused theoretical and clinical debates about the impact of technology on psychotherapy and the stances therapists should take in their own work with clients. Understanding the emerging digital culture, which includes how the Internet, social media, video games, reality, identity, relationships, and the self are experienced and managed, is thus important if clinicians are to carefully consider and understand the modern relevancy, patterns, and meanings of clients’ communications with and about technology, as well as the possible use of social media as a therapeutic tool. This paper considers those questions by evaluating research on the effects of technology use and the implications of that research for psychotherapeutic practice and theory, with a particular emphasis on how psychoanalytic therapists have approached the topic.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aguilera, A., & Muñoz, R. F. (2011). Text messaging as an adjunct to CBT in low-income populations: A usability and feasibility pilot study. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(6), 472–478.
Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Akhtar, S. (2011). The electrified mind: Development, psychopathology, and treatment in the era of cell phones and the Internet. Lanham: Jason Aronson.
Angster, A., Frank, M., & Lester, D. (2010). An exploratory study of students’ use of cell phones, texting, and social networking sites. Psychological Reports, 107(2), 402–404.
Beebe, B., & Lachmann, F. (2003). The relational turn in psychoanalysis: A dyadic systems view from infant research. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 39(3), 379–409.
Boase, J. (2008). Personal networks and the personal communication system: Using multiple media to connect. Information, Communication and Society, 11(4), 490–508.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Brottman, M. (2012). Whereof one cannot speak: Conducting psychoanalysis online. The Pyschoanalytic Review, 99(1), 19–34.
Campbell, S., & Russo, T. (2003). The social construction of mobile technology: An application of the social influence model to perceptions and uses of mobile phones within personal communication networks. Communication Monographs, 70(4), 317–334.
Chen, B. (2011). Always on: How the iphone unlocked the anything-anytime-anywhere future—and locked us in. Cambridge, MA: De Capo Press.
Curtis, R. (2012). New experiences and meanings: A model of change for psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 29(1), 81–98.
Cushman, P. (1995). Constructing the self, constructing America: A cultural history of psychotherapy. USA: Da Capo Press.
Dini, K. (2012). On video games, culture, and therapy. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 32, 496–505.
Eonta, A., Christon, L., Hourigan, S., Ravindran, N., Vrana, S., & Southam-Gerow, M. (2010). Using everyday technology to enhance evidence-based treatments. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(6), 513–520.
Essig, T. (2012). Psychoanalysis lost—and found—in our culture of simulation and enhancement. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 32, 438–452.
Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., Jurist, E., & Target, M. (2002). Affect regulation, mentalization, and the development of self. New York: Other Press.
Freud, S. (1912). The dynamics of transference. The standard edition. London: The Hogarth Press Ltd.
Freud, S. (1949). The Ego and the Id. London: The Hogarth Press Ltd.
Geller, S. (2011). History of presence across theoretical approaches. In S. Geller & L. Atkinson (Eds.), Therapeutic presence: A mindful approach to effective therapy (pp. 17–35). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gelso, C. (2010). The real relationship in psychotherapy: The hidden foundation of change. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Gibbs, P. (2011). Reality in cyberspace: Patients’ use of the Internet and ordinary everyday psychosis. In S. Akhtar (Ed.), The electrified mind: Development, psychopathology, and treatment in the era of cell phones and the Internet (pp. 73–88). Lanham: Jason Aronson.
Goren, E. (2003). America’s love affair with technology: The transformation of sexuality and the self over the 20th century. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 20(3), 487–508.
Greenfield, P. (2004). Developmental considerations for determining appropriate Internet use guidelines for children and adolescents. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 751–762.
Greenson, R. (1967). The technique and practice of psychoanalysis (Vol. I). New York, NY: International Universities Press.
Gross, E. (2004). Adolescent internet use: What we expect, what teens report. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 633–649.
Hanlon, J. (2001). Disembodied intimacies: Identity and relationship on the internet. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 18(3), 556–562.
Hartman, S. (2011). Reality 2.0: When loss is lost. Psychoanalytic dialogues. The International Journal of Relational Perspectives, 21(4), 468–482.
Hatfield, E., & Rapson, R. (1993). Love, sex, and intimacy. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers.
International Society for Mental Health Online. (2000). Suggested principles for the online provision of mental health services (version 3.11). Retrieved from http://www.ismho.org/suggestions.asp.
Jamieson, L. (1998). Intimacy: Personal relationships in modern societies. United Kingdom: Polity Press.
Jin, B., & Park, N. (2010). In-person contact begets calling and texting: Interpersonal motives for cell phone use, face-to-face interaction, and loneliness. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(6), 611–618.
Keijsers, L., Frijns, T., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (2009). Developmental links of adolescent disclosure, parental solicitation, and control with delinquency: Moderation by parental support. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1314–1327.
Kerr, M., Stattin, H., & Ozdemir, M. (2012). Perceived parenting style and adolescent adjustment: Revisiting directions of effects and the role of parental knowledge. Developmental Psychology, 48(6), 1540–1553.
Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of the Self. New York: International Universities Press.
Kolmes, K. (2012). Social media in the future of professional psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. doi:10.1037/a0028678.
Lingiardi, V. (2008). Playing with unreality: Transference and computer. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 89, 111–126.
Longman, H., O’Connor, E., & Obst, P. (2009). The effect of social support derived from world of warcraft on negative psychological symptoms. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 12(5), 563–566.
Lu, X., Watanabe, J., Liu, Q., Uji, M., Shono, M., & Kitamura, T. (2011). Internet and mobile phone text-messaging dependency: Factor structure and correlation with dysphoric mood among Japanese adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 1702–1709.
Luxton, D. D., McCann, R. A., Bush, N. E., Mishkind, M. C., & Reger, G. M. (2011). mHealth for mental health: Integrating smartphone technology in behavioral healthcare. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(6), 505–512.
Mishna, F., Bogo, M., Root, J., Sawyer, J., & Khoury-Kassabri, M. (2012). “It just crept in”: The digital age and implications for social work practice. Clinical Social Work, 40(3), 277–286.
Mitchell, S. A., & Harris, A. (2004). What’s American about American psychoanalysis? Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 14(2), 165–191.
Miyata, K., & Kobayashi, T. (2008). Causal relationship between Internet use and social capital in Japan. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 11, 42–52.
Morawski, J. (2001). Gifts bestowed, gifts withheld: Assessing psychological theory with a Kochian attitude. American Psychologist, 56(5), 433–440.
Morris, M. E., & Aguilera, A. (2012). Mobile, social, and wearable computing and the evolution of psychological practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(6), 622–626.
Nadkarni, A., & Hofmann, S. (2012). Why do people use Facebook? Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 243–249.
Obst, P., & Starfurik, J. (2010). Online we are all able bodied: Online psychological sense of community and social support found through membership of disability-specific websites promotes well-being for people living with a physical disability. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 20, 525–531.
Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2011a). Why Americans use social media. Downloaded from http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Why-Americans-Use-Social-Media.aspx.
Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2011b). Americans and text messaging. Downloaded from http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Cell-Phone-Texting-2011.aspx.
Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2012). The demographics of social media users–2012. Downloaded from http://pewinternet.org/~/media//Files/Reports/2013/PIP_SocialMediaUsers.pdf.
Pew Research Project and the Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard University. (2013). Teens and technology 2013. Downloaded from http://pewinternet.org/~/media//Files/Reports/2013/PIP_TeensandTechnology2013.pdf.
Roy, H., & Gillett, T. (2008). E-mail: A new technique for forming a therapeutic alliance with high-risk young people failing to engage with mental health services? A case study. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 13, 95–103.
Schore, A. (2009). Relational trauma and the developing right brain: An interface of psychoanalytic self psychology and neuroscience. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1159, 189–203.
Small, G., Moody, T., Siddarth, P., & Bookheimer, S. (2009). Your brain on Google: Patterns of cerebral activation during Internet searching. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17(2), 116–126.
Small, G., & Vorgan, G. (2008). iBrain: Surviving the technological alteration of the modern mind. New York: HarperCollins.
Stern, D. (2004). The present moment in psychotherapy and everyday life. New York: W.W. Norton.
Subrahmanyan, K., Greenfield, P., & Tynes, B. (2004). Constructing sexuality and identity in an online teen chat room. Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 651–666.
Sullivan, H. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
Szekely, L., & Nagy, A. (2011). Online youth work and eYouth—A guide to the world of the digital natives. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 2186–2197.
Turkle, S. (2004). Whither psychoanalysis in computer culture? Psychoanalytic Psychology, 21(1), 16–30.
Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. New York: Basic Books.
Underwood, M., Rosen, L., More, D., Ehrenreich, S., & Gentsch, J. (2012). The BlackBerry project: Capturing the content of adolescents’ text messaging. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 295–302.
Wachtel, P. (2008). Relational theory and the practice of psychotherapy. New York: The Guilford Press.
Walsh, S., White, K., & Young, R. (2010). Needing to connect: The effect of self and others on young people’s involvement with their mobile phones. Australian Journal of Psychology, 62(4), 194–203.
Watson, J., & Strayer, D. (2010). Supertaskers: Profiles in extraordinary multitasking ability. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14(4), 479–485.
Winnicott, D. (1960). The theory of the parent-child relationship. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 41, 585–595.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank to Sheldon Rothblatt and Sarah Abel for their suggestions and support for this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zilberstein, K. Technology, Relationships and Culture: Clinical and Theoretical Implications. Clin Soc Work J 43, 151–158 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-013-0461-2
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-013-0461-2