Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Interpretation of Ambiguity in Individuals with Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In two experiments we examined the psychometric properties of a new measure of interpretation bias in individuals with obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCs). In Experiment 1, 38 individuals high in OC symptoms, 34 individuals high in anxiety and dysphoric symptoms, and 31 asymptomatic individuals completed the measure. Results revealed that the Word Sentence Association Test for OCD (WSAO) can differentiate those with OC symptoms from both a matched anxious/dysphoric group and a non-anxious/non-dysphoric group. In a second experiment, we tested the predictive validity of the WSAO using a performance-based behavioral approach test of contamination fears, and found that the WSAO was a better predictor of avoidance than an established measure of OC washing symptoms (Obsessive Compulsive Inventory-Revised, washing subscale). Our results provide preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of the WSAO as well as its usefulness in predicting response to behavioral challenge above and beyond OC symptoms, depression, and anxiety.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Amir, N., Foa, E. B., & Coles, M. E. (1998). Negative interpretation bias in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 945–957. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00060-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beard, C., & Amir, N. (2008). A multi-session interpretation modification program: Changes in interpretation and social anxiety symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 1135–1141. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beard, C., & Amir, N. (2009). Interpretation in social anxiety: When meaning precedes ambiguity. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33, 406–415. doi:10.1007/s10608-009-9235-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhlmann, U., Wilhelm, S., McNally, R. J., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Baer, L., & Jenike, M. A. (2002). Interpretive biases for ambiguous information in body dysmorphic disorder. CNS Spectrums: International Journal of Neuropsychiatric Medicine, 7, 435–443.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, G., & Mathews, A. (1983). Cognitive processes in anxiety. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5, 51–62. doi:10.1016/0146-6402(83)90015-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. A., & Purdon, C. (1993). New perspectives for a cognitive theory of obsessions. Australian Psychologist, 28, 161–167. doi:10.1080/00050069308258896.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clerkin, E. M., & Teachman, B. A. (2011). Training interpretation biases among individuals with symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42, 337–343. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.01.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cougle, J. R., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Lee, H. J., & Telch, M. J. (2007). Mechanisms of change in ERP treatment of compulsive hand washing: Does primary threat make a difference? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1449–1459. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.12.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, R. I., Jarry, J. L., & Jackson, D. L. (2006). New factor structure of the Interpretation of Intrusions Inventory with university students. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 28, 223–232. doi:10.1007/s10862-005-9013-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Leiberg, S., Langner, R., Kichic, R., Hajcak, G., et al. (2002). The Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory: Development and validation of a short version. Psychological Assessment, 14, 485–496. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.14.4.485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hajcak, G., Huppert, J. D., Simons, R. F., & Foa, E. B. (2004). Psychometric properties of the OCI-R in a college sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 115–123. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jelinek, L., Hottenrott, B., & Moritz, S. (2009). When cancer is associated with illness but no longer with animal or zodiac sign: Investigation of biased semantic networks in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 1031–1036. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.07.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jhung, K., Namkoong, K., Kang, J. I., Ha, R. Y., An, S. K., Kim, C. H., et al. (2010). Perception bias of disgust in ambiguous facial expressions in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Research, 178, 126–131. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.11.023.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kabacoff, R. I., Segal, D. L., Hersen, M., & Van Hasselt, V. B. (1997). Psychometric properties and diagnostic utility of the Beck Anxiety Inventory and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory with older adult psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 33–47. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(96)00033-3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacLeod, C. (1993). Cognition in clinical psychology: Measures, methods or models. Behaviour Change, 10, 169–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Najmi, S., Kuckertz, J. M., & Amir, N. (2010). Automatic avoidance tendencies in individuals with contamination-related obsessive-compulsive concerns. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 1058–1062. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.06.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Najmi, S., Tobin, A. C., & Amir, N. (2012). Psychometric properties of a behavioral test of contamination-related obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36, 228–233. doi:10.1007/s10608-010-9332-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (1997). Cognitive assessment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 667–681. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00017-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2001). Development and initial validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 987–1006. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00085-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group. (2003). Psychometric validation of the obsessive beliefs questionnaire and the interpretation of intrusions inventory: Part I. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 863–878. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00099-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olatunji, B. O., Connolly, K., Lohr, J. M., & Elwood, L. S. (2008). Access to information about harm and safety in contamination-related obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 22, 57–67. doi:10.1891/0889.8391.22.1.57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S. (1997). A cognitive theory of obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 793–802. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00040-5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S. (1998). A cognitive theory of obsessions: Elaborations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 385–401. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)10041-9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramanaiah, N. V., Franzen, M., & Schill, T. (1983). A psychometric study of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 47, 531–535. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4705_14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, J. C., Austin, D. W., & Alvarenga, M. E. (2001). Interpretation of ambiguous interoceptive stimuli in panic disorder and nonclinical panic. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 235–246. doi:10.1023/A:1010783427196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salkovskis, P. M. (1985). Obsessional-compulsive problems: A cognitive-behavioural analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 571–583. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(85)90105-6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salkovskis, P. M. (1989). Obsessions and compulsions. In J. Scott, J. M. G. Williams, & A. T. Beck (Eds.), Cognitive therapy in clinical practice: An illustrative casebook (pp. 50–77). Florence, KY: Taylor & Frances/Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203359365_chapter_three.

  • Spielberger, C., Gorsuch, R., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: STAI (Form Y). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steer, R. A., & Clark, D. A. (1997). Psychometric characteristics of the Beck Depression Inventory–II with college students. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 30, 128–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steketee, G., Chambless, D. L., Tran, G. Q., Worden, H., & Gillis, M. M. (1996). Behavioral avoidance test for obsessive compulsive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 73–83. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(95)00040-5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stopa, L., & Clark, D. M. (2000). Social phobia and interpretation of social events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 273–283. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00043-1.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Voncken, M. J., Bögels, S. M., & de Vries, K. (2003). Interpretation and judgmental biases in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1481–1488. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00143-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego State University/University of California, San Diego, 6386 Alvarado Ct., Suite 301, San Diego, CA, 92120, USA

    Jennie M. Kuckertz, Nader Amir, Anastacia C. Tobin & Sadia Najmi

Authors
  1. Jennie M. Kuckertz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nader Amir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anastacia C. Tobin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sadia Najmi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nader Amir.

Appendix

Appendix

Word Sentence Association Test for OCD (WSAO)

Please read each sentence below and the word next to it. Then circle a number indicating how related the sentence and the word are to each other for you personally. In making your decision please use the scale below to rate their degree of relatedness.

For example: if the sentence is “You plan a fun activity for the weekend” and the word is “beach”, and you think that going to the beach would be a fun activity so they are very much related you would circle a 7. However, If you think that going to the beach would not be a fun activity, you would circle a 1. In answering these questions, please be sure to use the entire scale (1 through 7).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kuckertz, J.M., Amir, N., Tobin, A.C. et al. Interpretation of Ambiguity in Individuals with Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms. Cogn Ther Res 37, 232–241 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-012-9478-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-012-9478-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation