Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Ruminative Response Style in Adolescents: An Examination of Its Specific Link to Symptoms of Depression

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study further examined the relation between a ruminative response style and symptoms of depression in nonclinical adolescents aged 12–18 years (N = 231). Participants completed questionnaires that measure rumination, neuroticism, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Results indicated that rumination was significantly linked to symptoms of depression, and that this link remained significant when controlling for neuroticism. However, when concurrent anxiety symptoms were also taken into account, rumination was no longer significantly related to symptoms of depression. Interestingly, rumination appeared to be a significant correlate of anxiety symptoms, even after controlling for neuroticism and concurrent symptoms of depression. Support was found for a mediation model in which the link between neuroticism and depression and anxiety symptoms was partially mediated by rumination.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. This division in two ‘equal’ age groups is tenable as there is evidence indicating that cognitive features such as abstract reasoning and meta-cognitive thinking gradually increase during the entire developmental stage of adolescence (e.g., Ward & Overton, 1990).

  2. One of the reviewers hypothesized that these results were primarily due to the fact that the anxiety scale contained more items and hence was more reliable than the depression scale. To test this hypothesis, the regression analyses were rerun with a shortened 10-item anxiety scale (which was composed of the 10 RCADS anxiety items with the highest item-total correlation; α = .82). These analyses yielded similar findings as obtained with the full anxiety scale. That is, when predicting anxiety, rumination (as indexed by the RSQ or CRSS) remained a significant predictor, even after controlling for neuroticism and concurrent depressive symptoms. However, when predicting depression, rumination no longer accounted for a significant proportion of the variance once the influence of neuroticism and anxiety symptoms was statistically controlled.

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Brozina, K., & Haigh, E. P. (2002). An examination of the response styles theory of depression in third- and seventh-grade children: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 515–527.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bagby, R. M., & Parker, J. D. A. (2001). Relation of rumination and distraction with neuroticism and extraversion in a sample of patients with major depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 91–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bagby, R. M., Rector, N. A., Bacchiochi, J. R., & McBride, C. (2004). The stability of the Response Styles Questionnaire rumination scale in a sample of patients with major depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 527–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, D. H., Allen, L. B., & Choate, M. L. (2004). Toward a unified treatment for emotional disorders. Behavior Therapy, 35, 205–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, G., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., & Daleiden, E. L. (2002). Tripartite dimensions of emotion in a child clinical sample: Measurement strategies and implications for clinical utility. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1150–1160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., Moffitt, C. E., & Gray, J. (2005). Psychometric properties of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale in a clinical sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 309–322.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000). Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: A revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 835–855.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Claridge, G. (1997). Eysenck’s contribution to understanding psychopathology. In H. Nyborg (Ed.), The scientific study of human nature. Tribute to Hans J. Eysenck at eighty (pp. 364–387). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., Peeke, L. G., Martin, J. M., Truglio, R., & Seroczynski, A. D. (1998). A longitudinal look at the relation between depression and anxiety in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 451–460.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conway, M., Csank, P. A., Holm, S. L., & Blake, C. K. (2000). On assessing individual differences in rumination on sadness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 75, 404–425.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corulla, W. J. (1990). A revised version of the psychoticism scale for children. Personality and Individual Differences, 11, 65–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., & Taylor, S. (2001). The effect of rumination as a mediator of elevated anxiety sensitivity in major depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 525–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruyn, E., Delsing, M., & Welten, M. (1995). The EPQ-R (junior): A Dutch replication study. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 405–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (adult and junior). London: Hodder & Stoughton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, J. E., & Offord, D. R. (1990). Epidemiology of childhood depressive disorders: A critical review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 571–580.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fresco, D. M., Frankel, A. N., Mennin, D. S., Turk, C. L., & Heimberg, R. G. (2002). Distinct and overlapping features of rumination and worry: The relationship of cognitive production to negative affective states. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 179–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, K. E., Lyons, A. L., Finkelstein, J. A. S., Conway, K. M., Reynolds, L. K., O’Koon, J. H., Waitkoff, G. R., & Hicks, K. J. (2004). Gender differences in rates of depressive symptoms among low-income, urban, African American youth: A test of two mediational hypotheses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 523–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, J. A., & Blankenship, V. (2002). Ruminative thoughts and their relation to depression and anxiety. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 465–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E., & Lonigan, C. J. (2000). Tripartite model of depression and anxiety in youth psychiatric inpatients: Relations with diagnostic status and future symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 372–382.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Just, N., & Alloy, L. B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221–229.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kasch, K. L., Klein, D. N., & Lara, M. E. (2001). A construct validation study of the Response Styles Questionnaire rumination scale in participants with a recent-onset major depressive episode. Psychological Assessment, 13, 375–383.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., & Watson, D. (1989). Anxiety and depression. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Bolger, N. (1998). Data analysis in social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 233–265). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraaij, V., Garnefski, N., & van Gerwen, L. (2003). Cognitive coping and anxiety symptoms among people who seek help for fear of flying. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 74, 273–277.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, D., Smith, N., Checkley, S., Rijsdijk, F., & Sham, P. (2003). Effect of neuroticism, response style and information processing on depression severity in a clinically depressed sample. Psychological Medicine, 33, 469–479.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Clarke, G. N., Seeley, J. R., & Rohde, P. (1994). Major depression in community adolescents: Age at onset, episode duration, and time to recurrence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 809–818.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Duncan, E. M., Stanton, A. K., & Hautziner, M. (1986). Age at onset for first unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 378–383.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., & Andrews, J. A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 133–144.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mineka, S., Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1998). Comorbidity of anxiety and unipolar mood disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 377–412.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Meesters, C., & Schouten, E. (2002). A brief questionnaire of DSM-IV defined anxiety and depression symptoms among children. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 9, 430–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Roelofs, J., Meesters, C., & Boomsma, P. (2004). Rumination and worry in non-clinical adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 539–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Roelofs, J., Rassin, E., Franken, I., & Mayer, B. (2005). Mediating effects of rumination and worry on the links between neuroticism, and anxiety and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1105–1111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259–282.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–582.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Ruminative coping with depression. In J. Heckhausen & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulation across the life span (pp. 237–256). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504–511.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 20–28.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H., Seligman, L. D., Goza, A. B., Byrd, D. A., & Singh, K. (2003). Anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: A factor-analytic examination of the tripartite model. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 12, 157–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717–731.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. E., Gilboa, E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1998). Ruminative response style and vulnerability to episodes of dysphoria: Gender, neuroticism, and episode duration. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22, 401–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scholte, R., & de Bruyn, E. (2001). The Revised Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (JEPQ-R): Dutch replications of the full-length, short, and abbreviated forms. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 615–625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, J. A. J., & Koenig, L. J. (1996). Response styles and negative affect among adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 13–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Segerstrom, S. C., Stanton, A. L., Alden, L. E., & Shortridge, B. E. (2003). A multidimensional structure for repetitive thought: What’s on your mind, and how, and how much? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 909–921.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segerstrom, S. C., Tsao, J. C. I., Alden, L. E., & Craske, M. G. (2000). Worry and rumination: Repetitive thought as a concomitant and predictor of negative mood. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 671–688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, L. D., & Ollendick, T. H. (1998). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: An integrative review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 125–144.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptomatic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological methodology 1982 (pp. 290–312). San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, S. H. (1998). A measure of anxiety symptoms among children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 545–566.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Szabó, M., & Lovibond, P. F. (2004). The cognitive content of thought-listed worry episodes in clinic-referred anxious and nonreferred children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 613–622.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, S. L., & Overton, W. F. (1990). Semantic familiarity, relevance, and the development of deductive reasoning. Developmental Psychology, 26, 488–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, E. (2004). Appraisals and strategies associated with rumination and worry. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 679–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegert, D. I., & Kistner, J. A. (2002). Response styles theory: Downward extension to children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 325–334.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Burgemeester Oudlaan 50, Suite T-13-37, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

    Peter Muris, Maureen Fokke & Daniëlle Kwik

Authors
  1. Peter Muris
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Maureen Fokke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Daniëlle Kwik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Peter Muris.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Muris, P., Fokke, M. & Kwik, D. The Ruminative Response Style in Adolescents: An Examination of Its Specific Link to Symptoms of Depression. Cogn Ther Res 33, 21–32 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9120-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-007-9120-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation