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Rethinking Financial Inclusion: from Access to Autonomy

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Abstract

Financial inclusion has been defined and understood primarily in terms of access, thereby constituting ‘inclusion’/‘exclusion’ as a binary. This paper argues such a view to be myopic that risks treating financial inclusion as an end in itself, and not as means to a larger end. ‘Access’ oriented perspectives also fail to take into account considerations of structural factors like power asymmetries and pay inadequate attention to user practices. Through the case of auto-rickshaw drivers in Bangalore, India, and their use of Ola, a peer-to-peer taxi hailing service similar to Uber, we show that access is a necessary, but not sufficient condition to achieve financial inclusion in a substantive sense. By examining in detail, the financial needs and practices of rickshaw drivers, we identify the opportunities and constraints for digital technology to better support their financial practices and enhance their wellbeing. The paper proposes adding ‘autonomy’ and ‘affordances’ as two crucial factors to be included in the discourse on financial inclusion. Finally, we outline design implications for P2P technologies to contribute towards the financial inclusion of drivers.

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Notes

  1. http://digitalindia.gov.in/content/about-programme

  2. This is because economic exchange in the informal sector takes place mostly through cash. Wages are paid in cash. Exchange of goods and services are also done in cash. Lending, saving etc. are mostly done in cash (and sometimes kind – gold, land, cattle/goats etc.).

  3. http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=35141

  4. http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_fr/cfsr_all.pdf

  5. Amartya Sen (1999) makes a similar argument about development, critiquing narrower perspectives of development in terms of equating it with GDP, industrialization, modernization and so on. Development, he argues, is a “process of expanding human freedoms” (p. 3).

  6. Freund (2017), in his paper on using blockchain for achieving financial inclusion on a global scale, argues that ‘financial inclusion starts with identity; everything else is derived from it’ (p. 438). A trusted legal digital identity, which is facilitated by blockchain technology, will obviate the need for a bank account. ‘Anybody, anywhere in the world can participate as long as they have internet access through a smartphone’ (p. 443).

  7. Of course, how accessible and beneficial such a trail is, in reality, for people with limited access to technology and minimal technical literacy is a whole other question, and one of the reasons why paper receipts remain popular in low resource settings (Panjwani et al. 2013; Ghosh et al. 2015; O’Neill et al. 2017)

  8. These savings clubs are termed ROSCAs (rotating savings and credit associations) in development literature (Parikh et al. 2006; Collins et al. 2009; Roy 2010; Ratan et al. 2010; Banerjee and Duflo 2011). These have been shown to enhance women empowerment in resource-constrained settings (Maurer et al. 2018). The way ROSCAs work is that – the members pool their resources by paying small amounts monthly or weekly. The sum is then lent as micro-credit to one or more members for various expenses.

  9. This is not to say that the question of trust has disappeared altogether. The drivers still have to trust Ola to pay their digital earnings and incentives, and the drivers certainly did not fully trust Ola in this. However, the technology at least provides more visibility into their earnings, once it has been paid out.

  10. There have been occasional cases where drivers have demanded a lot more and customers have lodged complaints to the traffic police. However, this is not common.

  11. 1.5x is also the standard nighttime fare (from 22:00 to 05:00 h) as per traffic regulations.

  12. This is the norm in the West where Uber rides are paid for by a credit card that is linked to one’s Uber account. Because India is a predominantly cash economy, both Uber and Ola offer cash payment for rides.

  13. https://blog.olacabs.com/more-about-ola-credit/

  14. There is a vast body of literature in HCI and CSCW on affordances. Sellen and Harper (1997), for instance, discuss the affordances of paper in knowledge work. Kaptelinin and Nardi (2012) undertake a critical review of some key interpretations of ‘affordances’ in HCI and outline a view of affordances as ‘possibilities for mediated human action’.

  15. This is not to claim that the drivers will automatically start transacting with their accounts actively and frequently. The argument is merely to create the necessary preconditions before such activity can be conducted.

  16. In India, bank regulations permit only a limited number of ‘free’ withdrawals from ATMs per month. If the limit is exceeded, then each withdrawal will attract service fees. Cards also attract fees at PoS terminals like gas stations, which make them an impractical alternative for drivers.

  17. Even in case of Uber, which does not have its own m-wallet, all card-based payments are routed through the platform. Glöss et al. (2016) point to a 1-week delay in disbursing digital earnings and incentives to drivers in London and San Francisco.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank both Three Wheels United and Peace Auto for helping connect us to the auto-rickshaw drivers and Peace Auto for providing office space for interviews. Most importantly we would like to thank all the auto-drivers who generously gave us their time and insights.

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  1. Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

    Srihari Hulikal Muralidhar & Claus Bossen

  2. Microsoft Research India, Bangalore, India

    Jacki O’Neill

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Muralidhar, S.H., Bossen, C. & O’Neill, J. Rethinking Financial Inclusion: from Access to Autonomy. Comput Supported Coop Work 28, 511–547 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10606-019-09356-x

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10606-019-09356-x

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