Abstract
Delinquency refers to a juveniles’ behavior pattern characterized by repeated offending, and is regarded mainly in its social, but also criminal aspects. Delinquent and non-delinquent individuals may be a product of the same society or even the same family. Young individuals who are unable to find affection and protection within the family may become more susceptible to delinquency as a form of empowerment. More than socioeconomic conditions, the lack of interaction between parents and children, the existence of psychopathological problems in either parent, and academic problems, together with a biological vulnerability, may be deciding factors for the involvement of young individuals in delinquent behavior. This review aims to analyze the influence of environmental and genetic factors in the development of delinquent behavior. Studies related to the influence of the environment and genes on the development of delinquent behavior were obtained from multiple databases, through rigorous exclusion and inclusion criteria. Of the 152 documents retrieved, 87 were retained for further analysis, and 36 final studies were considered eligible for inclusion. In addition to these, ten studies were added trough manual search, with the final sample thus comprising 46 articles, published between 1983 and 2016. Objectives, methodological aspects (samples and instruments), and main conclusions were extracted from each study. Overall, the interaction between genetic and environmental factors appears to best explain the variation of delinquent behavior. Environmental risk factors may have differential effects on the behavior of individuals, particularly according to their genetic propensity for delinquency.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akcinar, B., & Shaw, D. (2017). Independent contributions of early positive parenting and mother-son coercion on emerging social development. Child Psychiatry and Human Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-017-0758-4.
Akers, R. (1998). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
Alexandra, V. (2018). Predicting CQ development in the context of experiential cross-cultural training: The role of social dominance orientation and the propensity to change stereotypes. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 17(1), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2015.0096.
Aslund, C., Comasco, E., Nordquist, N., Leppert, J., Oreland, L., & Nilsson, K. (2012). Self-reported family socioeconomic status, the 5-HTTLPR genotype, and delinquent behavior in a community-based adolescent population. Aggressive Behavior, 39(1), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21451.
Aslund, C., Nordquist, N., Comasco, E., Leppert, J., Oreland, L., & Nilsson, K. (2011). Maltreatment, MAOA, and delinquency: Sex diferences in gene-environment interaction in a large population-based cohort of adolescents. Behavior Genetics, 41(2), 262–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-010-9356-y.
Barnes, J., Boutwell, B., & Beaver, K. (2014). Genetic and nonshared environmental factors predict handgun ownership in early adulthood. Death Studies, 38(3), 156–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2012.738769.
Barnes, J., Boutwell, B., Morris, R., & Armstrong, T. (2012). Explaining differential patterns of self-reported delinquency: Evidence from a latent class analysis of sibling pairs. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 28(3), 254–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986212450217.
Beaver, K. (2008). Nonshared environmental influences on adolescent delinquent involvement and adult criminal behavior. Criminology, 46(2), 341–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00112.x.
Beaver, K. (2011). Environmental moderators of genetic influences on adolescent delinquent involvement and victimization. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(1), 84–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410384736.
Beaver, K., DeLisi, M., Wright, J., & Vaughn, M. (2009a). Gene-environment interplay and delinquent involvement. Evidence of direct, indirect, and interactive effects. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24(2), 147–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558408329952.
Beaver, K., Gibson, C., DeLisi, M., Vaughn, M., & Wright, J. (2012). The interaction between neighborhood disadvantage and genetic factors in the prediction of antisocial outcomes. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10(1), 25–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204011422085.
Beaver, K., Gibson, C., Turner, M., DeLisi, M., Vaughn, M., & Holand, A. (2011). Stability of delinquent peer associations: A biosocial test of warr’s sticky-friends hypothesis. Crime & Delinquency, 57(6), 907–927. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128709332660.
Beaver, K., Shutt, J., Boutwell, B., Ratchford, M., Roberts, K., & Barnes, J. (2009b). Genetic and environmental influences on levels of self-control and delinquent peer affiliation: Results from a longitudinal sample of adolescent twins. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(1), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854808326992.
Beaver, K., & Wright, J. (2005). Biosocial development and delinquent involvement. Youth Violence and Juvenile justice, 3(2), 168–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204004273318.
Boisvert, D., Wright, J., Knopik, V., & Vaske, J. (2012). Genetic and environmental overlap between low self-control and delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 28, 477–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-011-9150-x.
Burgess, R., & Akers, R. (1966). A differential association-reinforcement theory of criminal behavior. Social Problems, 14(1), 128–147. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.1966.14.2.03a00020.
Burt, S., Barnes, A., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. (2008). Parental divorce and adolescent delinquency: Ruling out the impact of common genes. Developmental Psychology, 44(6), 1668–1677. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013477.
Burt, S., & Klump, K. (2013). Delinquent peer affiliation as an etiological moderator of childhood delinquency. Psychological Medicine, 43, 1269–1278. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291712000013.
Burt, S., McGue, M., Krueger, R., & Iacono, W. (2007). Environmental contributions to adolescent delinquency: A fresh look at the shared environment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(5), 787–800. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9135-2.
Button, T., Corley, R., Rhee, S., Hewitt, J., Young, S., & Stallings, M. (2007). delinquent peer affiliation and conduct problems: A twin study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(3), 554–564. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.116.3.554.
Button, T., Stallings, M., Rhee, S., Corley, R., Boardman, J., & Hewitt, J. (2009). Perceived peer delinquency and the genetic predisposition for substance dependence vulnerability. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 100(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.08.014.
Chhangur, R., Overbeek, G., Verhagen, M., Weeland, J., Matthys, W., & Engels, R. (2015). DRD4 and DRD2 genes, parenting, and adolescent delinquency: Longitudinal evidence for a gene by environment interaction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124(4), 791–802. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000091.
Child Care & Early Education Research Connections. (2019). Quantitative Research Assessment Tool. Retrieved from https://www.researchconnections.org/childcare/datamethods/downloads/quantitativeresearch.pdf.
Connolly, E., & Beaver, K. (2016). Considering the genetic and environmental overlap between bullying victimization, delinquency, and symptoms of depression/anxiety. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(7), 1230–1256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514564158.
Connolly, E., Schwartz, J., Nedelec, J., Beaver, K., & Barnes, J. (2015). Different slopes for different folks: Genetic influences on growth in delinquent peer association and delinquency during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(7), 1413–1427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0299-8.
Edwards, A., Dodge, K., Latendresse, S., Lansford, J., Bates, J., Pettit, G., … Dick, D. (2010). MAOA-uVNTR and early physical discipline interact to influence delinquent behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(6), 679–687. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02196.x.
Fergusson, D., & Horwood, L. (1996). The role of adolescent peer affiliations in the continuity between childhood behavioral adjustment and juvenile offending. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24(2), 205–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01441485.
Fine, A., Mahler, A., Simmons, C., Chen, C., Moyzis, R., & Cauffman, E. (2016). Relations between three dopaminergic system genes, school attachment, and adolescent delinquency. Developmental Psychology, 52(11), 1893–1903. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000166.
Goldman, D., & Fishbein, D. (2000). Genetic basis for impulsive and anti-social behaviours – Can their course be altered? The science, treatment, and prevention of anti-social behaviours: Application to the criminal justice system. Kingston: Civic Research Institute.
Golubchik, P., Mozes, T., Maayan, R., & Weizman, A. (2009). Neurosteroid blood levels in delinquent adolescent boys with conduct disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 19(1), 49–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2008.08.008.
Gottfredson, M., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Harden, K., & Mendle, J. (2012). Gene-environment interplay in the association between pubertal timing and delinquency in adolescent girls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121(1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024160.
Harden, K., Quinn, P., & Tucker-Drob, E. (2012). Genetically influenced change in sensation seeking drives the rise of delinquent behavior during adolescence. Developmental Science, 15(1), 150–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01115.x.
Herrenkohl, T., Maguin, E., Hill, K., Hawkins, J., Abbott, R., & Catalano, R. (2000). Developmental risk factors for youth violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26(3), 176–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(99)00065-8.
Johnson, V., & Pandina, R. (1991). Effects of the family environment on adolescent substance use, delinquency, and coping styles. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 17(1), 71–88. https://doi.org/10.3109/00952999108992811.
Kretschmer, T., Dijkstra, J., Ormel, J., & Verhulst, F. (2013). Dopamine receptor D4 gene moderates the effect of positive and negative peer experiences on later delinquency: The tracking adolescents’ individual lives survey study. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4), 1107–1117. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000400.
Laird, R., Jordan, K., Dodge, K., Pettit, G., & Bates, J. (2001). Peer rejection in childhood, involvement with antisocial peers in early adolescence, and the development of externalizing behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 13(2), 337–354. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579401002085.
Landis, J., & Koch, G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529310.
Liberati, A., Altman, D., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P., Loannidis, J., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P., …, & Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate healthcare interventions: explanation and elaboration. British Medical Journal, 339, b2700–2700. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2700.
Liu, H., Li, Y., & Guo, G. (2015). Gene by social-environment interaction for youth delinquency and violence: Thirty-nine aggression-related genes. Social Forces, 93(3), 881–903. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou086.
Lowenstein, L. (2003). The genetic aspects of criminality. Journal of Human Behaviour in the Social Environment, 8(1), 63–78. https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v08n01_04.
Mann, F., Patterson, M., Grotzinger, A., Kretsch, N., Tackett, J., Tucker-Drob, E., … Harden, K. (2016). Sensation seeking, peer deviance, and genetic influences on adolescent delinquency: Evidence for person-environment correlation and interaction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(5), 679–691. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000160.
McCartan, L. (2007). Inevitable, influential, or unnecessary? Exploring the utility of genetic explanation for delinquent behavior. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(2), 219–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2007.01.008.
Moffitt, T., & Silva, P. (1988). IQ and delinquency: A direct test of the differential detection hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), 330–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.97.3.330.
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), 1–6.
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D., & Group, P. (2010). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. International Journal of Surgery, 8, 336–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.02.007.
Moreira, D., Pinto, M., Almeida, F., & Barbosa, F. (2016). Time perception deficits in impulsivity disorders: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 27, 87–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.03.008.
Narusyte, J., Andershed, A., Neiderhiser, J., & Lichtenstein, P. (2007). Aggression as a mediator of genetic contributions to the association between negative parent-child relationships and adolescent antisocial behavior. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 16(2), 128–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0582-z.
Newsome, J., & Sullivan, C. (2014). Resilience and vulnerability in adolescents: Genetic influences on differential response to risk for delinquency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1080–1095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0108-9.
Newsome, J., Vaske, J., Gehring, K., & Boisvert, D. (2016). Sex differences in sources of resilience and vulnerability to risk for delinquency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(4), 730–745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0381-2.
Nilsson, K., Comasco, E., Hodgins, S., Oreland, L., & Åslund, C. (2015). Genotypes do not confer risk for delinquency ut rather alter susceptibility to positive and negative environmental factors: Gene-environment interactions of BDNF Val66Met, 5-HTTLPR, and MAOA-uVNTR. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(5), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyu107.
Patterson, G., Reid, J., & Dishion, T. (1993). Antisocial boys: A social interactional approach. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Peacock, M., McClure, F., & Agars, M. (2003). Predictors of delinquent behaviors among latino youth. The Urban Review, 35(1), 59–72.
Petrila, J. (2001). Genetic risk: The new frontier for the duty to warn. Behavioural Sciences and the Law, 19(3), 405–421. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.449.
Piquero, A. (2016). The handbook of criminological theory. USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Rodgers, J., Buster, M., & Rowe, D. (2001). Genetic and environmental influences on delinquency: DF analysis of NLSY kinship data. Journal of Quantitatiûe Criminology, 17(2), 145–168.
Roettger, M., Boardman, J., Harris, K., & Guo, G. (2016). The association between the MAOA 2R genotype and delinquency over time among men: The interactive role of parental closeness and parental incarceration. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43(8), 1076–1094. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816629184.
Rowe, D. (1983). Biometrical genetic models of self-reported delinquent behavior: A twin study. Behavior Genetics, 13(5), 473–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01065923.
Rowe, D., Rodgers, J., & Meseck-Bushey, S. (1992). Sibling delinquency and the family environment: Shared and unshared influences. Child Development, 63(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130901.
Rutter, M., & Silberg, J. (2002). Gene environment interplay in relation to emotional and behavioural disturbance. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 463–490.
Seglem, K., Torgersen, S., Ask, H., & Waaktaar, T. (2015). Weak etiologic links between control and the externalizing behaviors delinquency and substance abuse in adolescence. Personality and Individual Differences, 75, 179–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.036.
Simonoff, E., Elander, J., Holmshaw, J., Pickles, A., Murray, R., & Rutter, M. (2004). Predictors of antisocial personality. Continuities from childhood to adult life. British Journal of Psychiatry, 184, 118–127.
Taylor, J., lacono, W., & McGue, M. (2000a). Evidence for a genetic etiology of early-onset delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(4), 634–643.
Taylor, J., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. (2000b). Sex differences, assortative mating, and cultural transmission effects on adolescent delinquency: A twin family study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(4), 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00628.
Taylor, J., McGue, M., Iacono, W., & Lykken, D. (2000c). A behavioral genetic analysis of the relationship between the socialization scale and self-reported delinquency. Journal of Personality, 68(1), 29–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2000.t01-1-.x.
Teitelbaum, L. (2002). Status offenses and status offenders. In K. Margaret, F. Rosenheim, E. Zimring, D. Tanenhaus, & B. Dohrn (Eds.), A century of juvenile justice (pp. 158–175). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Villafuerte, S., Trucco, E., Heitzeg, M., Burmeister, M., & Zucker, R. (2014). Genetic variation in GABRA2 moderates peer influence on externalizing behavior in adolescents. Brain and Behavior, 4(6), 833–840. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.291.
Wang, P., Niv, S., Tuvblab, C., Raine, A., & Baker, L. (2013). The genetic and environmental overlap between aggressive and non-aggressive antisocial behavior in children and adolescents using the self-report delinquency interview (SR-DI). Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(5), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2013.06.011.
Funding
Diana Moreira, Patrícia Figueiredo, and Andreia Azeredo were supported by doctoral Grants (SFRH/BD/108216/2015 – Diana Moreira, SFRH/BD/133694/2017 – Patrícia Figueiredo; SFRH/BD/136565/2018 – Andreia Azeredo), funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology under the POCH/FSE Program.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors do not have any interests that might be interpreted as influencing the research.
Ethical Approval
The study was conducted according to APA ethical standards.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Azeredo, A., Moreira, D., Figueiredo, P. et al. Delinquent Behavior: Systematic Review of Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 22, 502–526 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00298-w
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00298-w