Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Fathers of Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review of the Impact of Fathers’ Involvement on Youth, Families, and Intervention

  • Published:
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Literature in developmental psychology suggests that mothers and fathers both play unique and important roles in their children’s development. However, research investigating the unique contributions and psychological functioning of fathers of youth with developmental disabilities, and the role that fathers play in effective intervention, remains limited. Whereas evidence suggests that parent-mediated interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can lead to increased engagement from parents, and reduced stress and psychopathology commonly experienced by parents of youth with ASD, these interventions often do not specifically address potential benefits of paternal involvement. This systematic review aimed to understand how often/how commonly research on children with ASD examines the father’s role within the family, how often fathers are targeted directly during intervention efforts, and the impact of increased paternal involvement. This review suggests that fathers of children with ASD are not often included in research on children with ASD, in either their general involvement or in their inclusion in intervention. While studies generally suggest that these fathers may be less involved than mothers in childrearing practices, having both parents highly involved may improve the overall family system across many levels, and fathers may be equally as effective as mothers in implementing intervention strategies. Overall, this review suggests that while often overlooked, fathers of youth with ASD make important contributions to children with ASD and the larger family and should be included in future research on children with ASD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2018). 2018 Schools survey. Survey summary report: Number and type of responses, SLPs.

  • Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., … & Durkin, M. S. (2018). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 Sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 67(6), 1–23.

  • Baker-Ericzen, M. J., Brookman-Frazee, L., & Stahmer, A. (2005). Stress levels and adaptability in parents of toddlers with and without autism spectrum disorders. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(4), 194–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bendixen, R. M., Elder, J. H., Donaldson, S., Kairalla, J. A., Valcante, G., & Ferdig, R. E. (2011). Effects of a father-based in-home intervention on perceived stress and family dynamics in parents of children with autism. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65(6), 679–687.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bodden, D. H., Bögels, S. M., Nauta, M. H., De Haan, E., Ringrose, J., Appelboom, C., … & Appelboom-Geerts, K. C. (2008). Child versus family cognitive-behavioral therapy in clinically anxious youth: An efficacy and partial effectiveness study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(12), 1384–1394.

  • Braunstein, V. L., Peniston, N., Perelman, A., & Cassano, M. C. (2013). The inclusion of fathers in investigations of autistic spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(7), 858–865.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bristol, M. M., Gallagher, J. J., & Schopler, E. (1988). Mothers and fathers of young developmentally disabled and nondisabled boys: Adaptation and spousal support. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 441–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brobst, J. B., Clopton, J. R., & Hendrick, S. S. (2008). Parenting children with autism spectrum disorders: The couple’s relationship. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24(1), 38–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. (2016–2018). BLS Data Viewer. Retrieved from https://beta.bls.gov/dataViewer/view/timeseries/LNU02070073; https://beta.bls.gov/dataViewer/view/timeseries/LNU02070061

  • Burkett, K., Morris, E., Anthony, J., Shambley-Ebron, D., & Manning-Courtney, P. (2017). Parenting African American children with autism: The influence of respect and faith in mother, father, single-, and two-parent care. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 28(5), 496–504.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buzhardt, J., & Heitzman-Powell, L. (2005). Stop blaming the teachers: The role of usability testing in bridging the gap between educators and technology. Electronic Journal for the integration of Technology in Education, 4(1), 13–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, B., & Towers, C. (2008). Recognizing fathers: The needs of fathers of children with disabilities. Support for Learning, 23(3), 118–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassano, M., Adrian, M., Veits, G., & Zeman, J. (2006). The inclusion of fathers in the empirical investigation of child psychopathology: An update. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(4), 583–589.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheuk, S., & Lashewicz, B. (2016). How are they doing? Listening as fathers of children with autism spectrum disorder compare themselves to fathers of children who are typically developing. Autism, 20(3), 343–352.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D., Cassel, R. S., Saint-Georges, C., Mahdhaoui, A., Laznik, M. C., Apicella, F., … & Chetouani, M. (2013). Do parentese prosody and fathers’ involvement in interacting facilitate social interaction in infants who later develop autism?. Plos ONE, 8(5), 1–10.

  • Creighton, G., Brussoni, M., Oliffe, J., & Olsen, L. (2015). Fathers on child’s play: Urban and rural Canadian perspectives. Men and Masculinities, 18, 559–580.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deutsch, F. M., Servis, L. J., & Payne, J. D. (2001). Paternal participation in child care and its effects on children’s self-esteem and attitudes toward gendered roles. Journal of Family Issues, 22(8), 1000–1024.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donaldson, S. O., Elder, J. H., Self, E. H., & Christie, M. B. (2011). Fathers’ perceptions of their roles during in-home training for children with autism. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 24(4), 200–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duhig, A. M., Phares, V., & Birkeland, R. W. (2002). Involvement of fathers in therapy: A survey of clinicians. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 33(4), 389–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder, J. H., Donaldson, S. O., Kairalla, J., Valcante, G., Bendixen, R., Ferdig, R., … & Serrano, M. (2011). In-home training for fathers of children with autism: A follow up study and evaluation of four individual training components. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(3), 263–271.

  • Elder, J. H., & Goodman, J. J. (1996). Social turn-taking of children with neuropsychiatric impairments and their parents. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 19(4), 249–261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, J. H., Valcante, G., Won, D., & Zylis, R. (2003). Effects of in-home training for culturally diverse fathers of children with autism. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24(3), 273–295.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elfert, M., & Mirenda, P. (2015). Evaluation of a support group for fathers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 49(2), 115–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fabiano, G. A. (2007). Father participation in behavioral parent training for ADHD: Review and recommendations for increasing inclusion and engagement. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 683–693.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, J., Bernd, E., & Whiteman, V. (2007). Adolescent fathers’ parenting stress, social support, and involvement with infants. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17(1), 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, J., & Iglesias, A. (1999). Father involvement program effects on fathers, father figures, and their Head Start children: A quasi-experimental study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 14(2), 243–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falk, N. H., Norris, K., & Quinn, M. G. (2014). The factors predicting stress, anxiety and depression in the parents of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(12), 3185–3203.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flippin, M., & Crais, E. R. (2011). The need for more effective father involvement in early autism intervention a systematic review and recommendations. Journal of Early Intervention, 33(1), 24–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flippin, M., & Watson, L. R. (2015). Fathers’ and mothers’ verbal responsiveness and the language skills of young children with autism spectrum disorder. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 24(3), 400–410.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2004). Early father’s and mother’s involvement and child’s later educational outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(2), 141–153.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gau, S. S. F., Chou, M. C., Chiang, H. L., Lee, J. C., Wong, C. C., Chou, W. J., et al. (2012). Parental adjustment, marital relationship, and family function in families of children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 263–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavidia-Payne, S., & Stoneman, Z. (1997). Family predictors of maternal and paternal involvement in programs for young children with disabilities. Child Development, 68(4), 701–717.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerdts, J., & Bernier, R. (2011). The broader autism phenotype and its implications on the etiology and treatment of autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research and Treatment. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/545901.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hadadian, A., & Merbler, J. (1995a). Fathers of young children with disabilities: How do they want to be involved? Child & Youth Care Forum, 24(5), 327–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadadian, A., & Merbler, J. (1995b). Parents of infants and toddlers with special needs: Sharing views of desired services. Infant-Toddler Intervention: The Transdisciplinary Journal, 5(2), 141–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, S. L. (1986). Families of children with autism: Issues for the behavior therapist. The Behavior Therapist, 9(9), 175–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. M., Furstenberg, F. F., & Marmer, J. K. (1998). Paternal involvement with adolescents in intact families: The influence of fathers over the life course. Demography, 35(2), 201–216.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, S. L., Barker, E. T., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., & Floyd, F. J. (2011). Marital satisfaction and parenting experiences of mothers and fathers of adolescents and adults with autism. American Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 116(1), 81–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, S. L., Mihaila, I., Otalora-Fadner, H. S., & Bussanich, P. M. (2014). Division of labor in families of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Family Relations, 63(5), 627–638.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Heitzman-Powell, L. S., Buzhardt, J., Rusinko, L. C., & Miller, T. M. (2014). Formative evaluation of an ABA outreach training program for parents of children with autism in remote areas. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 29(1), 23–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • John, A., Halliburton, A., & Humphrey, J. (2013). Child–mother and child–father play interaction patterns with preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 183, 483–497.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, N. L., & Simpson, P. M. (2013). Lack of father involvement in research on children with autism spectrum disorder: Maternal parenting stress and family functioning. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 34(4), 220–228.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kayfitz, A. D., Gragg, M. N., & Robert Orr, R. (2010). Positive experiences of mothers and fathers of children with autism. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 23(4), 337–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konstantareas, M. M., & Homatidis, S. (1992). Mothers’ and fathers’ self-report of involvement with autistic, mentally delayed, and normal children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54(1), 153–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (2010). How do fathers influence children’s development? Let me count the ways. In M. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (5th ed., pp. 1–26). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaRossa, R. (1988). Fatherhood and social change. Family Relations, 37, 451–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laxman, D. J., McBride, B. A., Jeans, L. M., Dyer, W. J., Santos, R. M., Kern, J. L., … & Weglarz-Ward, J. M. (2015). Father involvement and maternal depressive symptoms in families of children with disabilities or delays. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 19(5), 1078–1086.

  • Lazar, A., Sagi, A., & Fraser, M. W. (1991). Involving fathers in social services. Children and Youth Services Review, 13(4), 287–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • League, S. E., & Ford, L. (1996). Fathers’ involvement in their children’s special education program. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of School Psychologists, Atlanta, GA, March 12–16, 1996.

  • Lundahl, B. W., Tollefson, D., Risser, H., & Lovejoy, M. C. (2008). A meta-analysis of father involvement in parent training. Research on Social Work Practice, 18, 97–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Makrygianni, M. K., & Reed, P. (2010). A meta-analytic review of the effectiveness of behavioural early intervention programs for children with autistic spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4(4), 577–593.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matson, J. L., Turygin, N. C., Beighley, J., Rieske, R., Tureck, K., & Matson, M. L. (2012). Applied behavior analysis in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Recent developments, strengths, and pitfalls. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 144–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, C., Fletcher, R., Dempsey, I., & Newman, L. (2015). Modeling relations among coparenting quality, autism-specific parenting self-efficacy, and parenting stress in mothers and fathers of children with ASD. Parenting, 15(2), 119–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, F. S., McLean, L. A., Anderson, A., Hudson, A., Cameron, C., & Matthews, J. (2013). Father participation with mothers in the Signposts program: An initial investigation. Journal of Intellectual Developmental Disability, 38, 39–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McBride, B. A., Schoppe, S. J., & Rane, T. R. (2002). Child characteristics, parenting stress, and parental involvement: Fathers versus mothers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(4), 998–1011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meadan, H., Parette, H. P., & Doubet, S. (2013). Fathers of young children with disabilities. In J. Pattnaik (Ed.), Father involvement in young children’s lives (pp. 153–167). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meadan, H., Stoner, J. B., & Angell, M. E. (2015). Fathers of children with autism: Perceived roles, responsibilities, and support needs. Early Child Development and Care, 185(10), 1678–1694.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & Prisma Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, M., Bolton, P., Pickles, A., Fombonne, E., Piven, J., & Rutter, M. (2000). Personality traits of the relatives of autistic probands. Psychological Medicine, 30(6), 1411–1424.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nangle, S. M., Kelley, M. L., Fals-Stewart, W., & Levant, R. F. (2003). Work and family variables as related to paternal engagement, responsibility, and accessibility in dual-earner couples with young children. Fathering, 1(1), 1–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nord, C., & West, J. (2001). Fathers’ and mothers’ involvement in their children’s schools by family type and resident status. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogston-Nobile, P. L. (2015). The division of family work among fathers and mothers of children with an autism spectrum disorder: Implications for parents and family functioning. Dissertation Abstracts International, 75, 1–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostfeld-Etzion, S., Feldman, R., Hirschler-Guttenberg, Y., Laor, N., & Golan, O. (2016). Self-regulated compliance in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder: The role of temperament and parental disciplinary style. Autism, 20(7), 868–878.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozturk, Y., Riccadonna, S., & Venuti, P. (2014). Parenting dimensions in mothers and fathers of children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(10), 1295–1306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palm, G., & Fagan, J. (2008). Father involvement in early childhood programs: Review of the literature. Early Child Development and Care, 178(7–8), 745–759.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panter-Brick, C., Burgess, A., Eggerman, M., McAllister, F., Pruett, K., & Leckman, J. F. (2014). Practitioner review: Engaging fathers—recommendations for a game change in parenting interventions based on a systematic review of the global evidence. Journal of Child Psychology, 55(11), 1187–1212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phares, V. (1992). Where’s poppa? The relative lack of attention to the role of fathers in child and adolescent psychopathology. American Psychologist, 47(5), 656–664.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phares, V., Fields, S., & Binitie, I. (2006). Getting fathers involved in child-related therapy. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 13(1), 42–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phares, V., Fields, S., Kamboukos, D., & Lopez, E. (2005). Still looking for poppa. American Psychologist, 60, 735–736.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pisula, E., & Kossakowska, Z. (2010). Sense of coherence and coping with stress among mothers and fathers of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(12), 1485–1494.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., Palmer, P., Jacobi, D., Childress, D., & Arndt, S. (1997). Broader autism phenotype: Evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(2), 185–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pleck, J. H., Masciadrelli, B. P. (2004). Paternal involvement by U.S. residential fathers: Levels, sources, and consequences. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th edn., pp. 222–271). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

  • Potter, C. (2016). ‘It’s the most important thing–I mean, the schooling’: Father involvement in the education of children with autism. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 31(4), 489–505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risdal, D., & Singer, G. H. (2004). Marital adjustment in parents of children with disabilities: A historical review and meta-analysis. Research and Practice for Persons with Devere Disabilities, 29(2), 95–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivard, M., Terroux, A., Parent-Boursier, C., & Mercier, C. (2014). Determinants of stress in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(7), 1609–1620.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, C. A., York, K., Rothenberg, A., & Bissell, L. J. (2015). Parenting a child with Asperger’s syndrome: A balancing act. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(8), 2310–2321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer, M. G., Bittman, M., La Greca, A. M., Crettenden, A. D., Harchak, T. F., & Martin, J. (2010). Time demands of caring for children with autism: What are the implications for maternal mental health? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(5), 620–628.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seung, H. K., Ashwell, S., Elder, J. H., & Valcante, G. (2006). Verbal communication outcomes in children with autism after in-home father training. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(2), 139–150.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shave, K., & Lashewicz, B. (2016). Support needs of fathers of children with ASD: Individual, family, community and ideological influences. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 29(6), 495–507.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Charma, T., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., & Baird, G. (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: Prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(8), 921–929.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sofronoff, K., & Farbotko, M. (2002). The effectiveness of parent management training to increase self-efficacy in parents of children with Asperger syndrome. Autism, 6(3), 271–286.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steiner, A. M., Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., & Ence, W. A. (2012). Issues and theoretical constructs regarding parent education for autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(6), 1218–1227.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tudor, M. E., Rankin, J., & Lerner, M. D. (2018). A model of family and child functioning in siblings of youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(4), 1210–1227.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turbiville, V. P., & Marquis, J. G. (2001). Father participation in early education programs. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 21(4), 223–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vacca, J. J. (2013). The parenting process from the father’s perspective. Best Practices in Mental Health, 9(2), 79–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Steensel, F. J. A., & Bögels, S. M. (2015). Cbt for anxiety disorders in children with and without autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(3), 512–523.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viera, A. J., & Garrett, J. M. (2005). Understanding interobserver agreement: The kappa statistic. Family Medicine, 37(5), 360–363.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, C. E., & O’Leary, D. K. (2013). A comparative study of the marital relationship between parents with children with autism and those with children without autism. Good Autism Practice, 14(1), 28–33.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research did not receive any specific Grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, The University of Alabama, Box 870348, Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487, USA

    James A. Rankin, Courtney A. Paisley, Theodore S. Tomeny & Sophia W. Eldred

Authors
  1. James A. Rankin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Courtney A. Paisley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Theodore S. Tomeny
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sophia W. Eldred
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James A. Rankin.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rankin, J.A., Paisley, C.A., Tomeny, T.S. et al. Fathers of Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review of the Impact of Fathers’ Involvement on Youth, Families, and Intervention. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 22, 458–477 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00294-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00294-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation