Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Resilience in the Offspring of Depressed Mothers: Variation Across Risk, Domains, and Time

  • Published:
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Considerable research has demonstrated that maternal depression is a significant risk factor for emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents (Goodman and Gotlib in Psychol Rev 106:458–490, 1999). It is important to note, however, that most children of depressed parents do not develop problems. This review will examine studies of resilience as they relate to the degree to which positive adjustment occurs across different levels of risk (i.e., severity and chronicity of depression as well as in context of multiple risk factors), domains of adjustment, and time. Understanding the phenomenon of resilience to depression is of critical importance to prevention and intervention experts because it may provide insight into processes that can be enhanced and targeted in prevention approaches among high-risk populations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (2014). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. London: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. A., & Hammen, C. L. (1993). Psychosocial outcomes of children of unipolar depressed, bipolar, medically ill, and normal women: A longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 448.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anthony, E. J. (1987). Children at high risk for psychosis growing up successfully. In E. J. Anthony & B. J. Cohler (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 147–184). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • APA. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: Dsm-5. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publication Incorporated.

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleyard, K., Egeland, B., van Dulmen, M. H., & Sroufe, L. A. (2005). When more is not better: The role of cumulative risk in child behavior outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 235–245.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 195–215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. M. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W. R., Bemporad, J., Keller, M. B., & Klerman, G. L. (1983). Children of parents with major affective disorder: A review. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 825–832.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W. R., Keller, M. B., & Klerman, G. D. (1985). Children of parents with affective disorder. International Journal of Family Psychiatry, 6, 283–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W. R., & Podorefsky, D. (1988). Resilient adolescents whose parents have serious affective and other psychiatric disorders: Importance of self-understanding and relationships. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 63–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benenson, J. F. (1993). Greater preference among females than males for dyadic interaction in early childhood. Child Development, 64, 544–555.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benenson, J. F., Apostoleris, N. H., & Parnass, J. (1997). Age and sex differences in dyadic and group interaction. Developmental Psychology, 33, 538–543.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bohnert, A. M., Kane, P., & Garber, J. (2008). Organized activity participation and internalizing and externalizing symptoms: Reciprocal relations during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 239–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brennan, P. A., Hammen, C., Andersen, M., Bor, W., Najman, J. M., & Williams, G. M. (2000). Chronicity, severity, and timing of maternal depressive symptoms: Relationships with child outcomes at age 5. Developmental Psychology, 36, 759.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan, P. A., Le Brocque, R., & Hammen, C. (2003). Maternal depression, parent-child relationships, and resilient outcomes in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1469–1477.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. B., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S. D., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting practices and peer group affiliation in adolescence. Child Development, 64, 467–482.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buckner, J. C., Mezzacappa, E., & Beardslee, W. R. (2003). Characteristics of resilient youths living in poverty: The role of self-regulatory processes. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 139–162.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burt, K. B., Obradovic, J., Long, J. D., & Masten, A. S. (2008). The interplay of social competence and psychopathology over 20 years: Testing transactional and cascade models. Child Development, 79, 359–374.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Brownell, C. A., Hungerford, A., Spieker, S. I., Mohan, R., & Blessing, J. S. (2004). The course of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal sensitivity as predictors of attachment security at 36 months. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 231–252.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, J., Halpern, C. T., & Kaufman, J. S. (2007). Maternal depressive symptoms, father’s involvement, and the trajectories of child problem behaviors in a US national sample. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 697–703.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, H.-J. (2013). Robust protective factors for African American youths who have a parent with depression. Social Work Research, 37, 121–134. doi:10.1093/swr/svs026.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chung, E. K., McCollum, K. F., Elo, I. T., Lee, H. J., & Culhane, J. F. (2004). Maternal depressive symptoms and infant health practices among low-income women. Pediatrics, 113, e523–e529.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: Reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13, 471–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2004). A multiple-levels-of-analysis approach to the study of developmental processes in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 17325–17326.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2006). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on resilience: Implications for the developing brain, neural plasticity, and preventive interventions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 248–258.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Garmezy, N. (1993). Prospects and promises in the study of resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 497–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crouter, A. C., & Head, M. R. (2002). Parental monitoring and knowledge of children. Handbook of Parenting, 3, 461–483.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1997). The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 797–815.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1998). Perspectives on research and practice in developmental psychopathology. In W. Damon, I. E. Sigel, & K. A. Renninger (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed., Vol. 4, pp. 479–583), Child psychology in practice Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D., Watt, N. F., West, S. G., Hawkins, J. D., Asarnow, J. R., Markman, H. J., et al. (1993). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist, 48, 1013–1022.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comas, M., Valentino, K., & Borkowski, J. G. (2014). Maternal depressive symptoms and child temperament: Longitudinal associations with executive functioning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35, 156–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, A. M., & Goodman, S. H. (2002). The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 746.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, M., & Hammen, C. (1993). Protective and resource factors in high- and low-risk children: A comparison of children with unipolar, bipolar, medically ill, and normal mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 593–607.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., & Campbell, S. B. (2002). Developmental psychopathology and family process: Theory, research, and clinical implications. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Keller, P. S., & Davies, P. T. (2005). Towards a family process model of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms: Exploring multiple relations with child and family functioning. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 479–489.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis, W., & Cicchetti, D. (2003). Moving research on resilience into the 21st century: Theoretical and methodological considerations in examining the biological contributors to resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 773–810.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutrona, C. E., & Troutman, B. R. (1986). Social support, infant temperament, and parenting self-efficacy: A mediational model of postpartum depression. Child development, 57, 1507–1518.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Ashman, S. B., & Carver, L. J. (2000). The role of early experience in shaping behavioral and brain development and its implications for social policy. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 695–712.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Wolff, M. S., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1998). Multiple risk factors in the development of externalizing behavior problems: Group and individual differences. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 469–493.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delany-Brumsey, A., Mays, V. M., & Cochran, S. D. (2014). Does neighborhood social capital buffer the effects of maternal depression on adolescent behavior problems? American Journal of Community Psychology, 53, 275–285.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Imperio, R. L., Dubow, E. F., & Ippolito, M. F. (2000). Resilient and stress-affected adolescents in an urban setting. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 129–142.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiPietro, J. A. (1981). Rough and tumble play: A function of gender. Developmental Psychology, 17, 50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., & McMahon, R. J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 61–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., Patterson, G. R., Stoolmiller, M., & Skinner, M. L. (1991). Family, school, and behavioral antecedents to early adolescent involvement with antisocial peers. Developmental Psychology, 27, 172.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Onofrio, B. M., Turkheimer, E., Emery, R. E., Maes, H. H., Silberg, J., & Eaves, L. J. (2007). A children of twins study of parental divorce and offspring psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 667–675.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 50–76.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubow, E. F., & Luster, T. (1990). Adjustment of children born to teenage mothers: The contribution of risk and protective factors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 393–404.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eamon, M. K., & Zuehl, R. M. (2001). Maternal depression and physical punishment as mediators of the effect of poverty on socioemotional problems of children in single-mother families. The American journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 218–226.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egeland, B., & Eickson, M. F. (1993). Attachment theory and findings: Implications for prevention and intervention. In S. Kramer, & H. Parens (Eds.), Prevention in mental health: Now, tomorrow, never? (pp. 21–50). Northvale, NJ: Aronson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, J., Melotti, R., Heron, J., Ramchandani, P., Wiles, N., Murray, L., & Stein, A. (2012). The timing of maternal depressive symptoms and child cognitive development: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 632–640.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fabes, R. A., Martin, C. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2003). Young children’s play qualities in same-, other-, and mixed-sex peer groups. Child Development, 74, 921–932.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., & Lynskey, M. T. (1996). Adolescent resiliency to family adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 281–292.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Field, T., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., Perry, S., Bendell, D., Schanberg, S., et al. (1988). Infants of depressed mothers show “depressed” behavior even with nondepressed adults. Child development, 59, 1569–1579.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garai, E. P., Forehand, R. L., Colletti, C. J., Reeslund, K., Potts, J., & Compas, B. (2009). The relation of maternal sensitivity to children’s internalizing and externalizing problems within the context of maternal depressive symptoms. Behavior Modification, 33, 559–582. doi:10.1177/0145445509342581.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garber, J., & Little, S. (1999). Predictors of competence among offspring of depressed mothers. Journal of Adolescent Research, 14, 44–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gest, S. D., Neemann, J., Hubbard, J. J., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1993). Parenting quality, adversity, and conduct problems in adolescence: Testing process-oriented models of resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 663–682.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gillham, J. E., Reivich, K. J., Jaycox, L. H., & Seligman, M. E. (1995). Prevention of depressive symptoms in schoolchildren: Two-year follow-up. Psychological Science, 6, 343–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106, 458–490.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 1–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2004). Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: The protective effects of family functioning. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 439–449.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graber, J. A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). Transitions and turning points: Navigating the passage from childhood through adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 32, 768–776.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimbos, T., & Granic, I. (2009). Changes in maternal depression are associated with most outcomes for adolescents with co-occurring externalizing and internalizing problems. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1415–1423.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunlicks, M. L., & Weissman, M. M. (2008). Change in child psychopathology with improvement in parental depression: A systematic review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 379–389.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, J., Hawkins, J. D., Hill, K. G., & Abbott, R. D. (2001). Childhood and adolescent predictors of alcohol abuse and dependence in young adulthood. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62, 754–762.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, L. A., Williams, C. A., & Greenberg, R. S. (1985). Supports, stressors, and depressive symptoms in low-income mothers of young children. American Journal of Public Health, 75, 518–522.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammack, P. L., Richards, M. H., Luo, Z., Edlynn, E. S., & Roy, K. (2004). Social support factors as moderators of community violence exposure among inner-city african american young adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 450–462.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (2000). Interpersonal factors in an emerging developmental model of depression. In S. L. Johnson, A. M. Hayes, T. M. Field, N. Schneiderman, & P. M. McCabe (Eds.), Stress, coping, and depression (pp. 71–88). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C., & Brennan, P. A. (2003). Severity, chronicity, and timing of maternal depression and risk for adolescent offspring diagnoses in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 253–258.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health-risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 153, 226–234.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Hill, K. G., & Abbott, R. D. (2005). Promoting positive adult functioning through social development intervention in childhood: Long-term effects from the seattle social development project. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159, 25–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, L., Hudson, A., & Matthews, J. (2003). Parental monitoring: A process model of parent-adolescent interaction. Behaviour Change, 20, 13–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herba, C. M., Tremblay, R. E., Boivin, M., Liu, X., Mongeau, C., Séguin, J. R., & Côté, S. M. (2013). Maternal depressive symptoms and children’s emotional problems: Can early child care help children of depressed mothers? JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 830–838.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmbeck, G. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child-clinical and pediatric psychology literatures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 599.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, J. L., & Garber, J. (2003). Relation of intelligence and religiosity to depressive disorders in offspring of depressed and nondepressed mothers. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 578–586.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., Roman, G., Hart, M. J., & Ensor, R. (2013). Does maternal depression predict young children’s executive function? A 4-year longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 169–177.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Polo-Tomas, M., & Taylor, A. (2007). Individual, family, and neighborhood factors distinguish resilient from non-resilient maltreated children: A cumulative stressors model. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 231–253.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaslow, N. J., Deering, C. G., & Racusin, G. R. (1994). Depressed children and their families. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 39–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C. (2006). The epidemiology of depression among women. In C. Keyes & S. H. Goodman (Eds.), Women and depression: A handbook for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences (pp. 22–37). London: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim-Cohen, J., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Taylor, A. (2004). Genetic and environmental processes in young children’s resilience and vulnerability to socioeconomic deprivation. Child Development, 75, 651–668.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, D. N., Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Olino, T. M. (2005). Psychopathology in the adolescent and young adult offspring of a community sample of mothers and fathers with major depression. Psychological Medicine, 35, 353–365.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolvin, I., Miller, F. J., Fleeting, M., & Kolvin, P. A. (1988). Risk/protective factors for offending with particular reference to deprivation. In M. Rutter (Ed.), Studies of psychosocial risk: The power of longitudinal data (pp. 77–95). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer, H. C., Stice, E., Kazdin, A. E., Offord, D., & Kupfer, D. J. (2001). How do risk factors work together? Mediators, moderators, and independent, overlapping, and proxy risk factors. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 848.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laird, R. D., Criss, M. M., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2009). Developmental trajectories and antecedents of distal parental supervision. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29, 258–284. doi: 10.1177/0272431608320123.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laird, R. D., Pettit, G. S., Dodge, K. A., & Bates, J. E. (2003). Change in parents’ monitoring knowledge: Links with parenting, relationship quality, adolescent beliefs, and antisocial behavior. Social Development, 12, 401–419.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langrock, A. M., Compas, B. E., Keller, G., Merchant, M. J., & Copeland, M. E. (2002). Coping with the stress of parental depression: Parents’ reports of children’s coping, emotional, and behavioral problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 312–324. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3103_03.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larson, R. W., Richards, M. H., Moneta, G., Holmbeck, G., & Duckett, E. (1996). Changes in adolescents’ daily interactions with their families from ages 10 to 18: Disengagement and transformation. Developmental Psychology, 32, 744.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, L.-C., Halpern, C. T., Hertz-Picciotto, I., Martin, S. L., & Suchindran, C. M. (2006). Child care and social support modify the association between maternal depressive symptoms and early childhood behaviour problems: A US national study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 305–310.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Letourneau, N., Duffett-Leger, L., & Salmani, M. (2009). The role of paternal support in the behavioural development of children exposed to postpartum depression. The Canadian Journal of Nursing Research = Revue Canadienne de Recherche En Sciences Infirmieres, 41, 86–106.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levendosky, A. A., Leahy, K. L., Bogat, G. A., Davidson, W. S., & von Eye, A. (2006). Domestic violence, maternal parenting, maternal mental health, and infant externalizing behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 544–552.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewandowski, R. E., Verdeli, H., Wickramaratne, P., Warner, V., Mancini, A., & Weissman, M. (2014). Predictors of positive outcomes in offspring of depressed parents and non-depressed parents across 20 years. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 800–811.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liddle, H. A. (1994). Contextualizing resiliency educational resilience in inner-city America: Challenges and prospects (pp. 167–177). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561–592.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 62, 600–616.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S. (1993). Annotation: Methodological and conceptual issues in research on childhood resilience. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 441–453.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S. (1996). Resilience: A construct of value. Paper presented at the 104th annual convention of the American psychological association, Toronto.

  • Luthar, S. S. (1998). Resilience among at-risk youth: Ephemeral, elusive, or robust? Boyd McCandless young scientist award presentation. Paper presented at the 106th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association.

  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Cushing, G. (2002). Measurement issues in the empirical study of resilience. In M. Glantz & J. Johnson (Eds.), Resilience and development (pp. 129–160). US: Springer.

  • Luthar, S. S., Doernberger, C. H., & Zigler, E. (1993). Resilience is not a unidimensional construct: Insights from a prospective study of inner-city adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 703–717.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Sawyer, J. A., & Brown, P. J. (2006). Conceptual issues in studies of resilience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 105–115.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Sexton, C. C. (2007). Maternal drug abuse versus maternal depression: Vulnerability and resilience among school-age and adolescent offspring. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 205–225.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Zelazo, L. B. (2003). Research on resilience: An integrative review. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 510–549). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons-Ruth, K., Wolfe, R., Lyubchik, A., & Steingard, R. (2002). Depressive symptoms in parents of children under age 3: Sociodemographic predictors, current correlates, and associated parenting behaviors. In N. Halfon, K. T. McLearn, & M. A. Schuster (Eds.), Child rearing in America: Challenges Facing Parents with Young Children, (pp. 217–259). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1984). Socialization and developmental change. Child Development, 55, 317–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marchand, J. F., Hock, E., & Widaman, K. (2002). Mutual relations between mothers’ depressive symptoms and hostile-controlling behavior and young children’s externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Parenting: Science and Practice, 2, 335–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2001). The stability and consequences of young children’s same-sex peer interactions. Developmental Psychology, 37, 431–446.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, M. J., Schmidt, C., Abraham, A., Walker, L., & Tercyak, K. (2009). Adolescents’ social environment and depression: Social networks, extracurricular activity, and family relationship influences. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 16, 346–354.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. The American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425–444.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., Roisman, G. I., Obradovic, J., Long, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1071–1094.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Garmezy, N. (1985). Risk, vulnerability, and protective factors in developmental psychopathology. In B. Lahey & A. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 1–52). US: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., & Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143–169.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2012). Child development in the context of disaster, war, and terrorism: Pathways of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 227–257.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Obradovic, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development.[see comment]. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 13–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Powell, J. L. (2003). A resilience framework for research, policy, and practice. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities (pp. 1–25). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Reed, M. J. (2002). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74–88). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (2012). Resilience in developmental psychopathology: Contributions of the project competence longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 345–361.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, T. A., Neiderhiser, J. M., Rijsdijk, F. V., Narusyte, J., Lichtenstein, P., & Eley, T. C. (2014). Accounting for genetic and environmental confounds in associations between parent and child characteristics: A systematic review of children-of-twins studies. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1138–1173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCormick, C. M., Kuo, S. I.-C., & Masten, A. S. (2011). Developmental tasks across the lifespan. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • McElwain, N. L., & Booth-Laforce, C. (2006). Maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress as predictors of infant-mother attachment security. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 247–255.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLennan, J. D., Kotelchuck, M., & Cho, H. (2001). Prevalence, persistence, and correlates of depressive symptoms in a national sample of mothers of toddlers. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1316–1323.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mezulis, A. H., Abramson, L. Y., Hyde, J. S., & Hankin, B. L. (2004). Is there a universal positivity bias in attributions? A meta-analytic review of individual, developmental, and cultural differences in the self-serving attributional bias. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 711.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morales, J. R., & Guerra, N. G. (2006). Effects of multiple context and cumulative stress on urban children’s adjustment in elementary school. Child Development, 77, 907–923.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran, G., Forbes, L., Evans, E., Tarabulsy, G. M., & Madigan, S. (2008). Both maternal sensitivity and atypical maternal behavior independently predict attachment security and disorganization in adolescent mother–infant relationships. Infant Behavior and Development, 31, 321–325.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munson, J. A., McMahon, R. J., & Spieker, S. J. (2001). Structure and variability in the developmental trajectory of children’s externalizing problems: Impact of infant attachment, maternal depressive symptomatology, and child sex. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 277–296.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, L., Fiori-Cowley, A., Hooper, R., & Cooper, P. (1996). The impact of postnatal depression and associated adversity on early mother-infant interactions and later infant outcome. Child Development, 67, 2512–2526.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Natsuaki, M. N., Shaw, D. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, M. J., Gordon, T. H., Reiss, D., & Leve, L. D. (2014). Raised by depressed parents: Is it an environmental risk? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17, 357–367.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1999). Chronicity of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and child functioning at 36 months. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1297–1310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, M. E., Boat, T., & Warner, K. E. (2009). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owens, E. B., & Shaw, D. S. (2003). Poverty and early childhood adjustment. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 267–292). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pargas, R. C. M., Brennan, P. A., Hammen, C., & Le Brocque, R. (2010). Resilience to maternal depression in young adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 46, 805.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., Forgatch, M. S., & Degarmo, D. S. (2010). Cascading effects following intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 949–970.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E. S. (1991). Depression in women. The British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement, 10, 22–29.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petterson, S. M., & Albers, A. B. (2001). Effects of poverty and maternal depression on early child development. Child Development, 72, 1794–1813.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pines, M. (1975). In praise of “invulnerables”. APA Monitor, 7.

  • Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2010). Differential susceptibility to parenting and quality child care. Developmental Psychology, 46, 379.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radke-Yarrow, M., & Brown, E. (1993). Resilience and vulnerability in children of multiple-risk families. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 581–592.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Marcuse, F., Oberlander, S. E., Papas, M. A., McNary, S. W., Hurley, K. M., & Black, M. M. (2010). Stability of maternal depressive symptoms among urban, low-income, african american adolescent mothers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122, 68–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, A. J. (1998). Resilience among black urban youth. Prevalence, intervention effects, and mechanisms of influence. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 84–100.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F., Harold, G. T., Shelton, K. H., & Thapar, A. (2006). Family conflict interacts with genetic liability in predicting childhood and adolescent depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 841–848.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F., Harold, G. T., & Thapar, A. (2002). The genetic aetiology of childhood depression: A review. Journal of child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 65–79.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice, F., Harold, G. T., & Thapar, A. (2005). The link between depression in mothers and offspring: An extended twin analysis. Behavior Genetics, 35, 565–577.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richters, J. E., & Weintraub, S. (1990). Beyond diathesis: Toward an understanding of high-risk environments. In J. E. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein, & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 67–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riley, A. W., Valdez, C. R., Barrueco, S., Mills, C., Beardslee, W., Sandler, I., & Rawal, P. (2008). Development of a family-based program to reduce risk and promote resilience among families affected by maternal depression: Theoretical basis and program description. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11, 12–29.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98–131.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose-Krasnor, L., Busseri, M. A., Willoughby, T., & Chalmers, H. (2006). Breadth and intensity of youth activity involvement as contexts for positive development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 365–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316–331.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1996). Transitions and turning points in developmental psychopathology: As applied to the age span between childhood and mid-adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19, 603–626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (2000). Resilience reconsidered: Conceptual considerations, empirical findings, and policy implications. In J. P. Shonkoff & S. J. Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 651–682). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Pickles, A., Murray, R., & Eaves, L. (2001). Testing hypotheses on specific environmental causal effects on behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 291–324.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J. (1998). Environmental risk factors in infancy. Pediatrics, 102, 1287–1292.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J. (2000). Dialectical processes in developmental psychopathology. In A. Sameroff, M. Lewis, & S. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 23–40). US: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J., Gutman, L. M., & Peck, S. C. (2003). Adaptation among youth facing multiple risks: Prospective research findings. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood (pp. 364–391). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, E., & Pedersen, S. (2003). Holistic contextual perspectives in risk, protection, and competence among low-income urban adolescents. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 318–342). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seifer, R., Sameroff, A. J., Baldwin, C. P., & Baldwin, A. L. (1992). Child and family factors that ameliorate risk between 4 and 13 years of age. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 893–903.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shannon, K. E., Beauchaine, T., Brenner, S. L., Neuhaus, E., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. (2007). Familial and temperamental predictors of resilience in children at risk for conduct disorder and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 701–727.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, D., Hay, D. F., Pawlby, S., Schmücker, G., Allen, H., & Kumar, R. (1995). The impact of postnatal depression on boys’ intellectual development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 1315–1336.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, D. S., Connell, A. M., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood problem behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 417–439.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, D. S., Keenan, K., & Vondra, J. (1994). Developmental precursors of externalizing behavior: Ages 1 to 3. Developmental Psychology, 30, 355–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shonkoff, J. P., Boyce, W. T., & McEwen, B. S. (2009). Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: Building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. JAMA, 301, 2252–2259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Forbes, E. E., Lane, T. L., & Kovacs, M. (2006). Maternal depression and child internalizing: The moderating role of child emotion regulation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 116–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., Gibbon, M., & First, M. B. (1990). Users guide for the structured clinical interview for dSM-III-R SCID. Arlington, VA, USA: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Dahl, R., Keating, D., Kupfer, D. J., Masten, A. S., & Pine, D. S. (2006). The study of developmental psychopathology in adolescence: Integrating affective neuroscience with the study of context. In D. C. D. J. Cohen (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology, vol 2: Developmental neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 710–741). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Fletcher, A., & Darling, N. (1994). Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use. Pediatrics, 93, 1060–1064.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Dornbusch, S. M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed. Child Development, 63, 1266–1281.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tannenbaum, L., & Forehand, R. (1994). Maternal depressive mood: The role of the father in preventing adolescent problem behaviors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 321–325.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tarter, R. E., & Vanyukov, M. (2002). Re-visiting the validity of the construct of resilience. In M. D. Glantz & J. L. Johnson (Eds.), Resilience and development (pp. 85–100). US: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tiet, Q. Q., Bird, H. R., Davies, M., Hoven, C., Cohen, P., Jensen, P. S., & Goodman, S. H. (1998). Adverse life events and resilience. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1191–1200.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiet, Q. Q., Bird, H. R., Hoven, C. W., Wu, P., Moore, R., & Davies, M. (2001). Resilience in the face of maternal psychopathology and adverse life events. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10, 347–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tolan, P. T. (1996). How resilient is the concept of resilience. The Community Psychologist, 29, 12–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanderbilt-Adriance, E., & Shaw, D. S. (2006). Neighborhood risk and the development of resilience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 359–362.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vanderbilt-Adriance, E., & Shaw, D. S. (2008). Conceptualizing and re-evaluating resilience across levels of risk, time, and domains of competence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11, 30–58.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waller, E. M., & Rose, A. J. (2010). Adjustment trade-offs of co-rumination in mother-adolescent relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 487–497. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.06.002.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., & Hammond, M. (1988). Maternal depression and its relationship to life stress, perceptions of child behavior problems, parenting behaviors, and child conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 299–315.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weissberg, R. P., Kumpfer, K. L., & Seligman, M. E. (2003). Prevention that works for children and youth: An introduction. The American Psychologist, 58, 425–432.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, M. M., Prusoff, B. A., Gammon, G. D., Merikangas, K. R., Leckman, J. F., & Kidd, K. K. (1984). Psychopathology in the children (ages 6–18) of depressed and normal parents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 78–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, M. M., Warner, V., & Fendrich, M. (1990). Applying impairment criteria to children’s psychiatric diagnosis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 789–795.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Warner, V., Pilowsky, D., & Verdeli, H. (2006). Offspring of depressed parents: 20 years later. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1001–1008.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable, but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whiffen, V. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1989). Infants of postpartum depressed mothers: Temperament and cognitive status. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 274.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, M. O., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2013). Resilience processes in development: Four waves of research on positive adaptation in the context of adversity. In S. Goldstein & R. B. Brooks (Eds.), Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 15–37). US: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under Grant No. (DGE-1247842), awarded to Julia Reuben.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, 210 South Bouquet Street, 4425 Sennott Square, Pittsburgh, PA, 15260-0001, USA

    Julia D. Reuben & Daniel S. Shaw

Authors
  1. Julia D. Reuben
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Daniel S. Shaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julia D. Reuben.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Reuben, J.D., Shaw, D.S. Resilience in the Offspring of Depressed Mothers: Variation Across Risk, Domains, and Time. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 18, 300–327 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0195-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0195-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation