Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Review and Reconceptualization of Social Aggression: Adaptive and Maladaptive Correlates

  • Published:
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The emergence of a research literature exploring parallels between physical and nonphysical (i.e., social, relational, indirect) forms of aggression has raised many questions about the developmental effects of aggressive behavior on psychological functioning, peer relationships, and social status. Although both forms of aggression have been linked to problematic outcomes in childhood and adolescence, more recent findings have highlighted the importance of considering the possible social rewards conferred by socially aggressive behavior. This paper examines relevant theory and empirical research investigating the adaptive and maladaptive correlates specific to nonphysical forms of aggression. Findings are explored at the level of group (e.g., peer rejection), dyadic (e.g., friendship quality), and individual (e.g., depressive symptoms) variables. Key developmental considerations and methodological issues are addressed, and recommendations for future research integrating current theoretical conceptualizations and empirical findings on social aggression are advanced.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the teacher’s report forms and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27–51. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andreou, E. (2006). Social preference, perceived popularity, and social intelligence: Relations to overt and relational aggression. School Psychology International, 27, 339–351. doi:10.1177/0143034306067286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J., & Coyne, S. M. (2005). An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 212–230. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atkins, M. S., & Stoff, D. M. (1993). Instrumental and hostile aggression in childhood disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 165–178. doi:10.1007/BF00911314.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bagner, D. M., Storch, E. A., & Preston, A. S. (2007). Romantic relational aggression: What about gender? Journal of Family Violence, 22, 19–24. doi:10.1007/s10896-006-9055-x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, C. A., & Ostrov, J. M. (2008). Differentiating forms and functions of aggression in emerging adults: Associations with hostile attributional biases and normative beliefs. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 713–722. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9211-5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1983). Psychological mechanisms of aggression. In R. G. Geen & E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Aggression: Theoretical and empirical reviews. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., & Connor, D. F. (2002). Aggression and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: Research and treatment. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A social psychological analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L. (1989). The frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 59–73. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, I. S. (1981). Dominance: The baby and the bathwater. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 419–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beisner, N. (1989). Information withholding as a manipulative and collusive strategy in Nukulaelae gossip. Language in Society, 18, 315–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992a). Do girls manipulate and boys fight? Aggressive Behavior, 18, 117–127. doi :10.1002/1098-2337(1992)18:2<117::AID-AB2480180205>3.0.CO;2-3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992b). The development of direct and indirect aggressive strategies in males and females. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemela (Eds.), Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression. San Diego, CA: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boivin, M., Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1995). Individual-group behavioral similarity and peer status in experimental play groups of boys: The social misfit revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 269–279. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.2.269.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonica, C., Arnold, D., Fisher, P., Zeljo, A., & Yershova, K. (2003). Relational aggression, relational victimization, and language development in preschoolers. Social Development, 12, 551–562. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., et al. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39, 222–245. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.222.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burr, J. E., Ostrov, J. M., Jansen, E. A., Cullerton-Sen, C., & Crick, N. R. (2005). Relational aggression and friendship during early childhood: “I won’t be your friend! Early Education and Development, 16, 161–183. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1602_4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, L. A., Hafetz, J., & Henninger, D. (2007). Gender differences in relational and physical aggression. Social Behavior and Personality, 35, 41–50. doi:10.2224/sbp.2007.35.1.41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (1994). Lifelines and risks: Pathways of youth in our time. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., Neckerman, H. J., Ferguson, L. L., & Gariepy, J. L. (1989). Growth and aggression: 1. Childhood to early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 25, 320–330. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.2.320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, E. M., & Nangle, D. W. (2006). Caught between stages: Relational aggression emerging as a developmental advance in at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 21, 177–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cillessen, A. H. N., & Borch, C. (2006). Developmental trajectories of adolescent popularity: A growth curve modelling analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 935–959.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cillessen, A. H. N., Jiang, X. L., West, T. V., & Laszkowski, D. K. (2005). Predictors of dyadic friendship quality in adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 165–172. doi:10.1080/01650250444000360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cillessen, A. H. N., & Mayeux, L. (2004). From censure to reinforcement: Developmental changes in the association between aggression and social status. Child Development, 75, 147–163. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00660.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1994). The earth is round (p < .05). The American Psychologist, 49, 997–1003. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.49.12.997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D., & Dodge, K. A. (1983). Continuities and changes in children’s social status: A five-year longitudinal study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 29, 261–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D., & Dodge, K. A. (1998). Aggression and antisocial behavior. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 779–862). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., & Copottelli, H. (1982). Dimensions and types of social status: A cross-age perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 557–570. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.4.557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Côté, S. M., Vaillancourt, T., Barker, E. D., Nagin, D., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007). The joint development of physical and indirect aggression: Predictors of continuity and change during childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 37–55. doi:10.1017/S0954579407070034.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crain, M. M., Finch, C. L., & Foster, S. L. (2005). The relevance of the social information processing model for understanding relational aggression in girls. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 51, 213–249. doi:10.1353/mpq.2005.0010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1995). Relational aggression: The role of intent attributions, feelings of distress, and provocation type. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 313–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children’s future social adjustment. Child Development, 67, 2317–2327. doi:10.2307/1131625.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1997). Engagement in gender normative versus nonnormative forms of aggression: Links to social-psychological adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 33, 610–617. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.4.610.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (2003). A gender-balanced approach to the study of childhood aggression and reciprocal family influences. In A. C. Crouter & A. Booth (Eds.), Children’s influences on family dynamics: The neglected side of family relationships (pp. 229–235). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

  • Crick, N. R., & Bigbee, M. A. (1998). Relational and overt forms of peer victimization: A multi-informant approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 337–347. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.337.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Bigbee, M. A., & Howes, C. (1996). Gender differences in children’s normative beliefs about aggression: How do I hurt thee? Let me count the ways. Child Development, 67, 1003–1014. doi:10.2307/1131876.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Casas, J. E., & Ku, H. (1999a). Relational and physical forms of peer victimization in preschool. Developmental Psychology, 35, 376–385. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.2.376.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Casas, J. F., & Mosher, M. (1997). Relational and overt aggression in preschool. Developmental Psychology, 33, 579–588. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.4.579.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Casas, J. F., & Nelson, D. A. (2002a). Toward a more comprehensive understanding of peer maltreatment: Studies of relational victimization. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 98–101. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722. doi:10.2307/1131945.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1996). Children’s treatment by peers: Victims of relational and overt aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 367–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Grotpeter, J. K., & Bigbee, M. A. (2002b). Relationally and physically aggressive children’s intent attributions and feelings of distress for relational and instrumental peer provocations. Child Development, 73, 1134–1142. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00462.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Murray-Close, D., & Woods, K. (2005). Borderline personality features in childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1051–1070. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050492.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Ostrov, J., Burr, J., Cullerton-Sen, C., Jansen-Yeh, E., & Ralston, P. (2006a). A longitudinal study of relational and physical aggression in preschool. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 254–268. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2006.02.006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Ostrov, J., & Werner, N. E. (2006b). A longitudinal study of relational aggression, physical aggression, and children’s social-psychological adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 131–142. doi:10.1007/s10802-005-9009-4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., Wellman, N. E., Casas, J. F., O’Brien, M. A., Nelson, D. A., Grotpeter, J. K., et al. (1999b). Childhood aggression and gender: A new look at an old problem. In D. Bernstein (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 75–140). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Werner, N. E. (1998). Response decision processes in relational and overt aggression. Child Development, 69, 1630–1639.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daly, M., & Wilson, M. I. (1988). Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide. Science, 242, 519–524. doi:10.1126/science.3175672.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daly, M., & Wilson, M. I. (2003). Evolutionary psychology of lethal interpersonal violence. In W. Heitmeyer & J. Hagan (Eds.), Handbook of research on violence (pp. 709–734). New York: Westview.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, C. F., & Kistner, J. A. (2000). Do positive self-perceptions have a ‘dark side’? Examination of the link between perceptual bias and aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 327–337. doi:10.1023/A:1005164925300.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day, D. M., Bream, L. A., & Pal, A. (1992). Proactive and reactive aggression: An analysis of subtypes based on teacher perceptions. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 210–217. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2103_2.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Los Reyes, A., & Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: A critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 483–509. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.483.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delveaux, K. D., & Daniels, T. (2000). Children’s social cognitions: Physically and relationally aggressive strategies and children’s goals in peer conflict situations. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46, 672–692.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A. (1983). Behavioral antecedents of peer social status. Child Development, 54, 1386–1399. doi:10.2307/1129802.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A. (1991). The structure and function of reactive and reactive aggression. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 201–218). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social information processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1146–1158. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1146.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dollard, J., Doob, L. W., Miller, N. E., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eckert, P. (1990). Cooperative competition in adolescent ‘girl talk’. Discourse Processes, 13, 91–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eder, D., & Enke, J. L. (1991). The structure of gossip: Opportunities and constraints on collective expression among adolescents. American Sociological Review, 56, 494–508. doi:10.2307/2096270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eder, D., & Sanford, S. (1986). The development and maintenance of interactional norms among early adolescents. In P. Adler & P. Adler (Eds.), Sociological studies of early child development (Vol. 1, pp. 283–300). Greenwich, CT: JAI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estrem, T. L. (2005). Relational and physical aggression among preschoolers: The effect of language skills and gender. Early Education and Development, 16, 207–232. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1602_6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feshbach, N. D. (1969). Sex differences in children’s modes of aggressive responses toward outsiders. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 15, 249–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feshbach, N. D., & Sones, G. (1971). Sex differences in adolescent reactions toward newcomers. Developmental Psychology, 4, 381–386. doi:10.1037/h0030986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fine, G. A. (1986). The social organization of adolescent gossip: The rhetoric of moral evaluation. In J. Cook-Gumperz, W. Corsaro, & J. Streeck (Eds.), Children’s worlds and children’s language (pp. 405–423). Berlin: Mouton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galen, B. R., & Underwood, M. K. (1997). A developmental investigation of social aggression among children. Developmental Psychology, 33, 589–600. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.4.589.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giordano, P. C., Cernkovich, S. A., & Pugh, M. D. (1986). Friendship and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 1170–1202. doi:10.1086/228390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, S. E., Chesir-Teran, D., & McFaul, A. (2008). Profiles and correlates of relational aggression in young adults’ romantic relationships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 251–265. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9255-6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, S. E., & Tisak, M. S. (2004). Adolescents’ outcome expectancies about relational aggression within acquaintanceships, friendships, and dating relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 283–302.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, S. E., Tisak, M. S., & Persson, A. V. (2006). Children’s evaluations of ambiguous provocation by relationally aggressive, physically aggressive and prosocial peers. The British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 701–708. doi:10.1348/026151005X64055.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J. M. (1986). The world of coordinated play: Same- and cross-sex friendships in young children. In J. M. Gottman & J. G. Parker (Eds.), Conversations of friends: Speculations on affective development (pp. 139–191). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J. M., & Mettetal, G. (1986). Speculations about social and affective development: Friendship and acquaintanceship through adolescence. In J. M. Gottman & J. G. Parker (Eds.), Conversations of friends: Speculations on affective development. Studies in emotion and social interaction (pp. 192–237). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grotpeter, J. K., & Crick, N. R. (1996). Relational aggression, overt aggression, and friendship. Child Development, 67, 2328–2338. doi:10.2307/1131626.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harré, R., & Lamb, R. (1983). The encyclopedic dictionary of psychology. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, C. H., Nelson, D. A., Robinson, C. C., Olsen, S. F., & McNeilly-Choque, M. K. (1998). Overt and relational aggression in Russian nursery-school-age children: Parenting style and marital linkages. Developmental Psychology, 25, 687–697. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.4.687.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartup, W. W. (1974). Aggression in childhood: Developmental perspectives. The American Psychologist, 29, 337–341. doi:10.1037/h0037622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartup, W. W. (1996). The company they keep: Friendships and their developmental significance. Child Development, 67, 1–13. doi:10.2307/1131681.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawley, P. H. (1999). The ontogenesis of social dominance: A strategy-based evolutionary perspective. Developmental Review, 19, 97–132. doi:10.1006/drev.1998.0470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawley, P. H. (2003a). Prosocial and coercive configurations of resource control in early adolescence: A case for the well-adapted Machiavellian. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 279–309. doi:10.1353/mpq.2003.0013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawley, P. H. (2003b). Strategies of control, aggression, and morality in preschoolers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 85, 213–235. doi:10.1016/S0022-0965(03)00073-0.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawley, P. H., Little, T. D., & Card, N. A. (2007a). The allure of a mean friend: Relationship quality and processes of aggressive adolescents with prosocial skills. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 170–180. doi:10.1177/0165025407074630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawley, P. H., Little, T. D., & Card, N. A. (2008). The myth of the alpha male: A new look at dominance-related beliefs and behaviors among adolescent males and females. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 79–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawley, P. H., Little, T. D., & Rodkin, P. C. (Eds.). (2007b). Aggression and adaptation: The bright side to bad behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawley, P. H., & Vaughn, B. E. (2003). Aggression and adaptation: The bright side to bad behavior. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 239–244. doi:10.1353/mpq.2003.0012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hektner, J. M., August, G. J., & Realmuto, G. M. (2000). Patterns and temporal changes in peer affiliation among aggressive and nonaggressive children participating in a summer school program. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 603–614. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP2904_12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henington, C., Hughes, J. N., Cavell, T. A., & Thompson, B. (1998). The role of relational aggression in identifying aggressive boys and girls. Journal of School Psychology, 36, 457–477. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(98)00015-6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., Flanagan, K. D., Dearing, K. F., et al. (2002). Observational, physiological, and self-report measures of children’s anger: Relations to reactive versus proactive aggression. Child Development, 73, 1101–1118. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00460.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Illich, I. (1982). Gender. Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. R., & Foster, S. L. (2005). The relationship between relational aggression in kindergarten children and friendship stability, mutuality, and peer liking. Early Education and Development, 16, 141–160. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1602_3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juliano, M., Werner, R., & Cassidy, K. (2006). Early correlates of preschool aggressive behavior according to type of aggression and measurement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 395–410. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2006.06.008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaukiainen, A., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K., Österman, K., Salmivalli, C., Rothberg, S., et al. (1999). The relationships between social intelligence, empathy, and three types of aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 81–89. doi :10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1999)25:2<81::AID-AB1>3.0.CO;2-M.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lancelotta, G. X., & Vaughn, S. (1989). Relation between types of aggression and sociometric status: Peer and teacher perceptions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 86–90. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.81.1.86.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaFontana, K. M., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (1999). Children’s interpersonal perceptions as a function of sociometric and peer-perceived popularity. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 160, 225–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaFontana, K. M., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2002). Children’s perceptions of popular and unpopular peers: A multimethod assessment. Developmental Psychology, 38, 635–647. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.635.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lagerspatz, K. M. J., & Björkqvist, K. (1994). Indirect aggression in boys and girls. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 131–150). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K., & Peltonen, T. (1988). Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in aggressiveness in 11–12-year-old children. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 303–315. doi :10.1002/1098-2337(1988)14:5<303::AID-AB2480140502>3.0.CO;2-M.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leadbeater, B. J., Boone, E. M., Sangster, N. A., & Mathieson, L. C. (2006). Sex differences in the personal costs and benefits of relational and physical aggression in high school. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 409–419. doi:10.1002/ab.20139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lease, A. M., Kennedy, C. A., & Axelrod, J. L. (2002). Children’s social constructions of popularity. Social Development, 11, 87–109. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lento-Zwolinski, J. (2007). College students’ self-report of psychosocial factors in reactive forms of relational and physical aggression. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24, 407–421. doi:10.1177/0265407507077229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linder, J. R., Crick, N. R., & Collins, A. W. (2002). Relational aggression and victimization in young adults’ romantic relationships: Associations with perceptions of parent, peer, and romantic relationship quality. Social Development, 11, 69–86. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, T., Brauner, J., Jones, S., Nock, M. K., & Hawley, P. (2003). Rethinking aggression: A typological examination of the functions of aggression. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 343–369. doi:10.1353/mpq.2003.0014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lochman, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (1998). Distorted perceptions in dyadic interactions of aggressive and nonaggressive boys: Effect of prior expectations, context, and boys’ age. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 495–512. doi:10.1017/S0954579498001710.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz, K. (1966). On aggression. New York: Harcourt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loudin, J. L., Loukas, A., & Robinson, S. (2003). Relational aggression in college students: Examining the roles of social anxiety and empathy. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 430–439. doi:10.1002/ab.10039.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loukas, A., Paulos, S. K., & Robinson, S. (2005). Early adolescent social and overt aggression: Examining the roles of social anxiety and maternal psychological control. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 335–345. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-5757-2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1998). The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (2004). Aggression in the context of gender development. In M. Putallaz & K. L. Bierman (Eds.), Aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence among girls (pp. 3–22). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M. A., & Frick, P. J. (2007). Exploring the cognitive and emotional correlates to proactive and reactive aggression in a sample of detained girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 969–981. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9147-y.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M. A., Weems, C. F., & Taylor, L. K. (2008). Exploring the association between aggression and anxiety in youth: A look at aggressive subtypes, gender, and social cognition. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 17, 154–168. doi:10.1007/s10826-007-9154-1.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNeilly-Choque, M. K., Hart, C. H., Robinson, C. C., Nelson, L. J., & Olsen, S. F. (1996). Overt and relational aggression on the playground: Correspondence among different informants. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 11, 47–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merten, D. E. (1997). The meaning of meanness: Popularity, competition, and conflict among junior high school girls. Sociology of Education, 70, 175–190. doi:10.2307/2673207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. R. (2003). Psychopathy and the five-factor model of personality: A replication and extension. Journal of Personality Assessment, 81, 168–178. doi:10.1207/S15327752JPA8102_08.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moretti, M. M., Holland, R., & McKay, S. (2001). Self-other representations and relational and overt aggression in adolescent girls and boys. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 19, 109–126. doi:10.1002/bsl.429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray-Close, D., & Crick, N. R. (2006). Mutual antipathy involvement: Gender and associations with aggression and victimization. School Psychology Review, 35, 472–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray-Close, D., Ostrov, J. M., & Crick, N. R. (2007). A short-term longitudinal study of growth of relational aggression during middle childhood: Associations with gender, friendship intimacy, and internalizing problems. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 187–203. doi:10.1017/S0954579407070101.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Musher-Eizenman, D. R., Boxer, P., Danner, S., Dubow, E. F., Goldstein, S. E., & Heretick, D. M. L. (2004). Social-cognitive mediators of the relation of environmental and emotion regulation factors to children’s aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 30, 389–408. doi:10.1002/ab.20078.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagin, D., & Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Trajectories of boys’ physical aggression, opposition, and hyperactivity on the path to physically violent and nonviolent juvenile delinquency. Child Development, 70, 1181–1196. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00086.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. A., Robinson, C. C., & Hart, C. H. (2005). Relational and physical aggression of preschool-age children: Peer status linkages across informants. Early Education and Development, 16, 115–139. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1602_2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M. (2006). Deception and subtypes of aggression during early childhood. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 93, 322–336. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.10.004.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M. (2008). Forms of aggression and peer victimization during early childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 311–322. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9179-3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M., & Crick, N. R. (2007). Forms and functions of aggression during early childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. School Psychology Review, 36, 22–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M., & Houston, R. J. (2008) The utility of forms and functions of aggression in emerging adulthood: Association with personality disorder symptomatology. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 1147–1158 .

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M., & Keating, C. (2004). Gender differences in preschool aggression during free play and structured interactions: An observational study. Social Development, 13, 255–277. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.000266.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M., Woods, K., Jansen, E., Casas, J., & Crick, N. R. (2004). An observational study of delivered and received aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment in preschool: ‘This White Crayon Doesn’t Work…’. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 355–371. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2004.04.009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pakaslahti, L., & Keltikangas-Jaervinen, L. (2000). Comparison of peer, teacher and self-assessments on adolescent direct and indirect aggression. Educational Psychology, 20, 177–190. doi:10.1080/713663710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paquette, J. A., & Underwood, M. K. (1999). Gender differences in young adolescents’ experiences of peer victimization: Social and physical aggression. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 45, 242–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, J. H., Essex, M. J., Zahn-Waxler, C., Armstrong, J. M., Klein, M. H., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2005). Relational and overt aggression in middle childhood: Early child and family risk factors. Early Education and Development, 16, 233–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parke, R. D., & Slaby, R. G. (1983). The development of aggression. In P. Mussen & E. M. Hetherington (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (4th ed., Vol. 4, pp. 547–641). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, J. G., & Gottman, J. M. (1989). Social and emotional development in a relational context: Friendship interaction from early childhood to adolescence. In T. J. Bernt & G. W. Ladd (Eds.), Peer relationships in child development (pp. 95–132). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, J. G., Low, C. M., Walker, A. R., & Gamm, B. K. (2005). Friendship jealousy in young adolescents: Individual differences and links to sex, self-esteem, aggression, and social adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 41, 235–250. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.235.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parkhurst, J. T., & Hopmeyer, A. (1998). Sociometric popularity and peer-perceived popularity: Two distinct dimensions of peer status. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 18, 125–144. doi:10.1177/0272431698018002001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., Capaldi, D. M., & Bank, L. (1991). An early starter model for predicting delinquency. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 139–168). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pepler, D. J., & Craig, W. M. (2005). Aggressive girls on troubled trajectories: A developmental perspective. In D. J. Pepler, K. Madsen, K. Levene, & C. Webster (Eds.), The development and treatment of girlhood aggression (pp. 3–28). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillipsen, L. C., Deptula, D. P., & Cohen, R. (1999). Relating characteristics of children and their friends to relational and overt aggression. Child Study Journal, 29, 269–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polman, H., de Castro, B. O., & Koops, W. (2007). A meta-analysis of the distinction between reactive and proactive aggression in children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 522–535. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9109-4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poulin, F., & Boivin, M. (1999). Proactive and reactive aggression and boys’ friendship quality in mainstream classrooms. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 7, 168–177. doi:10.1177/106342669900700305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poulin, F., & Boivin, M. (2000). Reactive and proactive aggression: Evidence of a two-factor model. Psychological Assessment, 12, 115–122. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.12.2.115.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Price, J. M., & Dodge, K. A. (1989). Reactive and proactive aggression in childhood: Relations to peer status and social context dimensions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 455–471. doi:10.1007/BF00915038.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prinstein, M. J., Boergers, J., & Vernberg, E. M. (2001). Overt and relational aggression in adolescents: Social-psychological adjustment of aggressors and victims. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 479–491. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3004_05.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prinstein, M. J., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2003). Forms and functions of adolescent peer aggression associated with high levels of peer status. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 310–342. doi:10.1353/mpq.2003.0015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pulkkinen, L. (1996). Proactive and reactive aggression in early adolescence as precursors to anti- and prosocial behaviors in young adults. Aggressive Behavior, 22, 241–257. doi :10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1996)22:4<241::AID-AB1>3.0.CO;2-O.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., Swenson, L. P., & Carlson, W. (2004a). Friendships of aggressive youth: Considering the influences of being disliked and of being perceived as popular. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 25–45. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.02.005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., Swenson, L., & Waller, E. (2004b). Overt and relational aggression and perceived popularity: Developmental differences in concurrent and prospective relations. Developmental Psychology, 40, 378–387. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.3.378.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rys, G. S., & Bear, G. G. (1997). Relational aggression and peer relations: Gender and developmental issues. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43, 87–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rysman, A. (1977). How the “gossip” became a woman. The Journal of Communication, 27, 176–180. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1977.tb01814.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., Kaukiainen, A., & Lagerspetz, K. (2000). Aggression and sociometric status among peers: Do gender and type of aggression matter? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 41, 17–24. doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00166.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sebanc, A. (2003). The friendship features of preschool children: Links with prosocial behavior and aggression. Social Development, 12, 249–268. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. K. (2007). Why has aggression been thought of as maladaptive? In P. H. Hawley, T. D. Little, & P. C. Rodkin (Eds.), Aggression and adaptation: The bright side to bad behavior (pp. 65–83). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storch, E. A., Bagner, D. M., & Geffken, G. R. (2004). Association between overt and relational aggression and psychosocial adjustment in undergraduate college students. Violence and Victims, 19, 689–700. doi:10.1891/vivi.19.6.689.66342.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Storch, E. A., Werner, N. E., & Storch, J. B. (2003). Relational aggression and psychosocial adjustment in intercollegiate athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 26, 155–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stormshak, E. A., Bierman, K. L., Bruschi, C., Dodge, K. A., Coie, J. D., & The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (1999). The relation between behavior problems and peer preference in different classroom contexts. Child Development, 70, 169–182. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00013.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strayer, F. F., & Noel, J. M. (1986). The prosocial and antisocial functions of aggression: An ethological study of triadic conflict among young children. In C. Zahn-Waxler, E. M. Cummings, & R. Iannotti (Eds.), Altruism and aggression. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, T. N., Farrell, A. D., & Kliewer, W. (2006). Peer victimization in early adolescence: Association between physical and relational victimization and drug use, aggression, and delinquent behaviors among urban middle school students. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 119–137. doi:10.1017/S095457940606007X.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suls, J. M. (1977). Gossip as social comparison. The Journal of Communication, 27, 164–168. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1977.tb01812.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomada, G., & Schneider, B. H. (1997). Relational aggression, gender, and peer acceptance: Invariance across culture, stability over time, and concordance among informants. Developmental Psychology, 33, 601–609. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.4.601.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E. (2000). The development of aggressive behavior during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129–141. doi:10.1080/016502500383232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K. (2002). Sticks and stones and social exclusion: Aggression among boys and girls. In P. K. Smith & C. H. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development (pp. 533–548). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K. (2003). Social aggression among girls. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K. (2004). Gender and peer relations: Are the two gender cultures really all that different? In J. B. Kupersmidt & K. A. Dodge (Eds.), Children’s peer relations: From developmental science to intervention to policy (pp. 21–36). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K., & Buhrmester, D. (2007). Friendship features and social exclusion: An observational study examining gender and social context. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 53, 412–438. doi:10.1353/mpq.2007.0023.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K., Galen, B. R., & Paquette, J. A. (2001). Top ten challenges for understanding gender and aggression in children: Why can’t we all just get along? Social Development, 10, 248–266. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K., Scott, B. L., Galperin, M. B., Bjornstad, G. J., & Sexton, A. M. (2004). An observational study of social exclusion under varied conditions: Gender and developmental differences. Child Development, 75, 1538–1555. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00756.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T. (2005). Indirect aggression among humans: Social construct or evolutionary adaptation? In R. E. Tremblay, W. W. Hartup, & J. Archer (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 158–177). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T., & Hymel, S. (2006). Aggression and social status: The moderating roles of sex and peer-valued characteristics. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 396–408. doi:10.1002/ab.20138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T., Miller, J. L., Fagbemi, J., Côté, S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007). Trajectories and predictors of indirect aggression: Results from a nationally representative longitudinal study of Canadian children aged 2–10. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 314–326. doi:10.1002/ab.20202.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, B. E., Vollenweider, M., Bost, K. K., Azria-Evans, M. R., & Snider, J. B. (2003). Negative interactions and social competence for preschool children in two samples: Reconsidering the interpretation of aggressive behavior for young children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 245–278. doi:10.1353/mpq.2003.0017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, N. E., & Crick, N. R. (1999). Relational aggression and social psychological adjustment in a college sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 615–623. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.108.4.615.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, N. E., & Crick, N. R. (2004). Maladaptive peer relationships and the development of relational and physical aggression during middle childhood. Social Development, 13, 495–514. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00280.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, N. E., & Nixon, C. L. (2005). Normative beliefs and relational aggression: An investigation of the cognitive bases of adolescent aggressive behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 229–243. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-4306-3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Bryant, D. (2001). Overt and covert dimensions of antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 177–187. doi:10.1023/A:1010377329840.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolke, D., Woods, S., Bloomfield, L., & Karstadt, L. (2000). The association between direct and relational bullying, and behaviour problems among primary school children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 989–1002. doi:10.1017/S0021963099006381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woods, S., & Wolke, D. (2004). Direct and relational bullying among primary school children and academic achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 42, 135–155. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2003.12.002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. C., Giammarino, M., & Parad, H. W. (1986). Social status in small groups: Individual-group similarity and the social “misfit”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 523–536. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.3.523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xie, H., Cairns, B. D., & Cairns, R. B. (2004). The development of aggressive behaviors among girls: Measurement issues, social functions, and differential trajectories. In D. J. Pepler, K. Madsen, C. Webster, & K. Levene (Eds.), Development and treatment of girlhood aggression (pp. 103–134). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xie, H., Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (2002a). The development of social aggression and physical aggression: A narrative analysis of interpersonal conflicts. Aggressive Behavior, 28, 341–355. doi:10.1002/ab.80008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xie, H., Swift, D. J., Cairns, B. D., & Cairns, R. B. (2002b). Aggressive behaviors in social interaction and developmental adaptation: A narrative analysis of interpersonal conflicts during early adolescence. Social Development, 11, 205–224. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., Park, J. H., Essex, M., Slattery, M., & Cole, P. (2005). Relational and overt aggression in disruptive adolescents: Prediction from early social representations and links with concurrent problems. Early Education and Development, 16, 259–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zalecki, C. A., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2004). Overt and relational aggression in girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 125–137. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Geiger, T. C., & Crick, N. R. (2005). Relational and physical aggression, prosocial behavior, and peer relations: Gender moderation and bidirectional associations. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 421–452. doi:10.1177/0272431605279841.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Hunter, T. A., & Pronk, R. (2007). A model of behaviors, peer relations, and depression: Perceived social acceptance as a mediator and the divergence of perceptions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 273–302. doi:10.1521/jscp.2007.26.3.273.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina, CB#3270, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3270, USA

    Nicole Heilbron & Mitchell J. Prinstein

Authors
  1. Nicole Heilbron
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mitchell J. Prinstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicole Heilbron.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Heilbron, N., Prinstein, M.J. A Review and Reconceptualization of Social Aggression: Adaptive and Maladaptive Correlates. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 11, 176–217 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-008-0037-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-008-0037-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation