Abstract
Background
Prospective data from the Women’s Health Initiative were analyzed to evaluate more than 800 possible risk factors for an association with colon cancer in postmenopausal women.
Methods
Data included 150,912 postmenopausal women between the ages of 50 and 79. The Cox proportional hazard regression analysis was used to identify risk factors independently associated with the development of colon cancer during a median follow-up time of 8 years.
Results
A total of 1,210 women developed colon cancer and 282 developed rectal cancer. Eleven risk factors were independently associated with an increased risk of colon cancer at the p < 0.001 level. In decreasing order of associated χ2 values, they were age, waist girth (especially for subjects without diabetes), use of hormone therapy at baseline (protective), years smoked, arthritis (protective presumably because of medications used for treatment), relatives with colorectal cancer, lower hematocrit levels, fatigue, diabetes, less use of sleep medication, and cholecystectomy. Of the 11 factors, three were significantly associated with an increased risk of rectal cancer: age, waist, and not taking hormone therapy.
Conclusions
The results provide additional support for the importance of waist girth, hormone therapy, smoking, NSAID use, diabetes, and cholecystectomy as risk factors for colon cancer. Some factors previously identified as influencing risk (exercise and black race) did not have a strong independent association with colon cancer in this analysis.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Giovannucci E (2002) Modifiable risk factors for colon cancer. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 31:925–943
Marshall JR (2008) Prevention of colorectal cancer: diet, chemoprevention, and lifestyle. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 37:73–82 vi
The Women’s Health Initiative Study Group (1998) Design of the Women’s Health Initiative clinical trial and observational study. Control Clin Trials 19:61–109
Anderson GL, Manson J, Wallace R et al (2003) Implementation of the Women’s Health Initiative study design. Ann Epidemiol 13:S5–S17
Curb JD, McTiernan A, Heckbert SR et al (2003) Outcomes ascertainment and adjudication methods in the Women’s Health Initiative. Ann Epidemiol 13:S122–S128
Hays J, Hunt JR, Hubbell FA et al (2003) The Women’s Health Initiative recruitment methods and results. Ann Epidemiol 13:S18–S77
Rothman KJ (1990) No adjustments are needed for multiple comparisons. Epidemiology 1:43–46
Hartz A, Houts P, Arnold S, Bartholomew M, Fischer M (1988) A method of quantify confounding in regression analyses applied to data on diet and CHD incidence. J Clin Epidemiol 41:331–337
Wolf LA, Terry PD, Potter JD, Bostick RM (2007) Do factors related to endogenous and exogenous estrogens modify the relationship between obesity and risk of colorectal adenomas in women? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16:676–683
Ding EL, Mehta S, Fawzi WW, Giovannucci EL (2008) Interaction of estrogen therapy with calcium and vitamin D supplementation on colorectal cancer risk: reanalysis of Women’s Health Initiative randomized trial. Int J Cancer 122:1690–1694
American Cancer Society (2012) Colorectal cancer: causes, risk factors, and prevention topics. http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/ColonandRectumCancer/DetailedGuide/colorectal-cancer-risk-factors
Freedman AN, Slattery ML, Ballard-Barbash R et al (2009) Colorectal cancer risk prediction tool for white men and women without known susceptibility. J Clin Oncol 27:686–693
Moore LL, Bradlee ML, Singer MR et al (2004) BMI and waist circumference as predictors of lifetime colon cancer risk in Framingham Study adults. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28:559–567
Beresford SA, Johnson KC, Ritenbaugh C et al (2006) Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of colorectal cancer: the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled dietary modification trial. JAMA 295:643–654
Kabat GC, Shikany JM, Beresford SA et al (2008) Dietary carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load in relation to colorectal cancer risk in the Women’s Health Initiative. Cancer Causes Control 19:1291–1298
Neuhouser ML, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Thomson C et al (2009) Multivitamin use and risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease in the Women’s Health Initiative cohorts. Arch Intern Med 169:294–304
Paskett ED, Reeves KW, Rohan TE et al (2007) Association between cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer in the Women’s Health Initiative. J Natl Cancer Inst 99:1729–1735
Prentice RL, Pettinger M, Beresford SA et al (2009) Colorectal cancer in relation to postmenopausal estrogen and estrogen plus progestin in the Women’s Health Initiative clinical trial and observational study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18:1531–1537
Ritenbaugh C, Stanford JL, Wu L et al (2008) Conjugated equine estrogens and colorectal cancer incidence and survival: the Women’s Health Initiative randomized clinical trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17:2609–2618
Hoffmeister M, Raum E, Krtschil A, Chang-Claude J, Brenner H (2009) No evidence for variation in colorectal cancer risk associated with different types of postmenopausal hormone therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 86:416–424
Reid FD, Mercer PM, Harrison M, Bates T (1996) Cholecystectomy as a risk factor for colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. Scand J Gastroenterol 31:160–169
Zhao C, Ge Z, Wang Y, Qian J (2012) Meta-analysis of observational studies on cholecystectomy and the risk of colorectal adenoma. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 24:375–381
Shao T, Yang YX (2005) Cholecystectomy and the risk of colorectal cancer. Am J Gastroenterol 100:1813–1820
Xu YK, Zhang FL, Feng T, Li J, Wang YH (2009) Meta-analysis on the correlation of cholecystectomy or cholecystolithiasis to risk of colorectal cancer in Chinese population. Chin J Cancer 28:749–755
Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ (1993) A meta-analysis of cholecystectomy and risk of colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology 105:130–141
Narisawa T, Magadia NE, Weisburger JH, Wynder EL (1974) Promoting effect of bile acids on colon carcinogenesis after intrarectal instillation of N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 53:1093–1097
Koga S, Kaibara N, Takeda R (1982) Effect of bile acids on 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon cancer in rats. Cancer 50:543–547
Todoroki I, Friedman GD, Slattery ML, Potter JD, Samowitz W (1999) Cholecystectomy and the risk of colon cancer. Am J Gastroenterol 94:41–46
Slattery ML, Edwards SL, Ma KN, Friedman GD (2000) Colon cancer screening, lifestyle, and risk of colon cancer. Cancer Causes Control 11:555–563
Winawer SJ, Zauber AG, Ho MN et al (1993) Prevention of colorectal cancer by colonoscopic polypectomy. The National Polyp Study Workgroup. N Engl J Med 329:1977–1981
Pischon T, Lahmann PH, Boeing H et al (2006) Body size and risk of colon and rectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J Natl Cancer Inst 98:920–931
Akhter M, Inoue M, Kurahashi N, Iwasaki M, Sasazuki S, Tsugane S (2008) Reproductive factors, exogenous female hormone use and colorectal cancer risk: the Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study. Eur J Cancer Prev 17:515–524
Martinez ME, Grodstein F, Giovannucci E et al (1997) A prospective study of reproductive factors, oral contraceptive use, and risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 6:1–5
Zervoudakis A, Strickler HD, Park Y et al (2011) Reproductive history and risk of colorectal cancer in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 103:826–834
Chute CG, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Speizer FE (1991) A prospective study of reproductive history and exogenous estrogens on the risk of colorectal cancer in women. Epidemiology 2:201–207
Tamakoshi K, Wakai K, Kojima M et al (2004) A prospective study of reproductive and menstrual factors and colon cancer risk in Japanese women: findings from the JACC study. Cancer Sci 95:602–607
Taylor ML, Wells BJ, Smolak MJ (2008) Statins and cancer: a meta-analysis of case–control studies. Eur J Cancer Prev 17:259–268
Poynter JN, Gruber SB, Higgins PD et al (2005) Statins and the risk of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 352:2184–2192
Haukka J, Sankila R, Klaukka T et al (2010) Incidence of cancer and statin usage—record linkage study. Int J Cancer 126:279–284
Coogan PF, Smith J, Rosenberg L (2007) Statin use and risk of colorectal cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 99:32–40
Kershaw EE, Flier JS (2004) Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:2548–2556
Rondini EA, Harvey AE, Steibel JP, Hursting SD, Fenton JI (2010) Energy balance modulates colon tumor growth: interactive roles of insulin and estrogen. Mol Carcinog 50:370–382
Delellis Henderson K, Duan L, Sullivan-Halley J et al (2010) Menopausal hormone therapy use and risk of invasive colon cancer: the California Teachers Study. Am J Epidemiol 171:415–425
Clevers H (2006) Colon cancer—understanding how NSAIDs work. N Engl J Med 354:761–763
Acknowledgments
The Women’s Health Initiative study (WHI) is conducted and supported by the NHLBI in collaboration with the WHI investigators. This manuscript was prepared using a limited-access data set obtained by the NHLBI and does not necessarily reflect the opinions or views of the WHI or the NHLBI. The research was supported in part by the Huntsman Cancer Foundation and the Beaumont Foundation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hartz, A., He, T. & Ross, J.J. Risk factors for colon cancer in 150,912 postmenopausal women. Cancer Causes Control 23, 1599–1605 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-012-0037-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-012-0037-4