Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

What Time May Tell: An Exploratory Study of the Relationship Between Religiosity, Temporal Orientation, and Goals in Family Business

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

To study how religiosity affects family business goals, we merge literatures on goal setting, temporal orientation, and family business to argue that family business goals can be distinguished into short-term and long-term orientations and propose that religiosity affects both orientations, but to varying degrees. Drawing on a sample of private U.S. family businesses and applying partial least squares structural equations modeling, we find tentative support that religiosity has a stronger positive effect on long-term goal orientation than on short-term goal orientation. We discuss implications for theory development and future research involving religiosity and family business goals.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. We define goals as “internal representations of desired states, where states are broadly construed as outcomes, events, or processes” (Austin and Vancouver 1996, p. 338).

  2. We use “future time perspective” and “future orientation” interchangeably.

  3. For example: family-first vs. business-first, or non-financial vs. financial.

  4. Information obtained from Dr. Ron Davis, PIA Senior Vice President & Chief Economist.

  5. We mention only those items from the EFA that were retained after the PLS-SEM analysis.

  6. See Appendix 1 for firm performance and family cohesion items.

  7. Model reliability and validity were examined but are not reported due to space restrictions. Detailed analyses can be obtained from the corresponding author.

References

  • Adams, A. F., III, Manners, G. E., Jr., Astrachan, J. H., & Mazzola, P. (2004). The importance of integrated goal setting: The application of cost-of-capital concepts to private firms. Family Business Review,17(4), 287–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, J. S., & Overton, T. S. (1977). Estimating nonresponse bias in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing Research,14(3), 396–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arruñada, B. (2010). Protestants and Catholics: Similar work ethic, different social ethic. The Economic Journal,120(547), 890–918.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astrachan, J. H. (2010). Strategy in family business: Toward a multidimensional research agenda. Journal of Family Business Strategy,1(1), 6–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astrachan, J. H., & Jaskiewicz, P. (2008). Emotional returns and emotional costs in privately held family businesses: Advancing traditional business valuation. Family Business Review,21(2), 139–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Auger, M. W. (2017). Built to last: Exploring family strategy in dynastic business families. Kennesaw State University, Doctor of Business Administration Dissertations, 35, https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/dba_etd/35.

  • Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process and content. Psychological Bulletin,122, 338–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basco, R., Calabrò, A., & Campopiano, G. (2018). Transgenerational entrepreneurship around the world: Implications for family business research and practice. Journal of Family Business Strategy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfbs.2018.03.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bearden, W. O., Money, R. B., & Nevins, J. L. (2006). A measure of long-term orientation: Development and validation. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,34(3), 456–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berrone, P., Cruz, C., & Gómez-Mejia, L. R. (2012). Socioemotional wealth in family firms: Theoretical dimensions, assessment approaches, and agenda for future research. Family Business Review,25(3), 258–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binz-Astrachan, C., Patel, V. K., & Wanzenried, G. (2014). A comparative study of CB-SEM and PLS-SEM for theory development in family firm research. Journal of Family Business Strategy,5(1), 116–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bos, F. & Van Gils, A. (2019). Temporal orientation in family firms. Research Paper 2019/001, Dutch Centre of Expertise in Family Business, Zwolle, The Netherlands.

  • Brigham, K. H., Lumpkin, G. T., Payne, G. T., & Zachary, M. A. (2014). Researching long-term orientation: A validation study and recommendations for future research. Family Business Review,27(1), 72–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brothers, A., Chui, H., Diehl, M., & Pruchno, R. (2014). Measuring future time perspective across adulthood: Development and evaluation of a brief multidimensional questionnaire. The Gerontologist,54, 1075–1088.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabrera-Suárez, M. K., Déniz-Déniz, M. D. L. C., & Martín-Santana, J. D. (2014). The setting of non-financial goals in the family firm: The influence of family climate and identification. Journal of Family Business Strategy,5(3), 289–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, E. C., McCullough, M. E., Kim-Spoon, J., Corrales, C., & Blake, A. (2012). Religious people discount the future less. Evolution and Human Behavior,33(3), 224–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2001). On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chua, J. H., Chrisman, J. J., & De Massis, A. (2015). A closer look at socioemotional wealth: Its flows, stocks, and prospect for moving forward. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,39(2), 173–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chua, J. H., Chrisman, J. J., De Massis, A., & Wang, H. (2018). Reflections on family firm goals and the assessment of performance. Journal of Family Business Strategy,9(2), 107–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conroy, S. J., & Emerson, T. L. (2004). Business ethics and religion: Religiosity as a predictor of ethical awareness among students. Journal of Business Ethics,50(4), 383–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dana, L. P. (2009). Religion as an explanatory variable for entrepreneurship. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation,10(2), 87–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, A., & Hjorth, D. (2012). Advancing family business research through narrative analysis. Family Business Review,25(3), 339–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dede, N. P., & Ayranci, E. (2014). Exploring the connections among spiritual leadership, altruism, and trust in family businesses. Quality & Quantity,48(6), 3373–3400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dibrell, C. C., & Memili, E. (2019). A brief history and a look to the future of family business heterogeneity: An introduction. In C. C. Dibrell & E. Memili (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of heterogeneity among family firms (pp. 1–15). Cham, CH: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eddleston, K. A., & Kellermanns, F. W. (2007). Destructive and productive family relationships: A stewardship theory perspective. Journal of Business Venturing,22(4), 545–565.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elsbach, K. D., & Pieper, T. M. (2019). How psychological needs motivate family firm identifications and identifiers: A framework and future research agenda. Journal of Family Business Strategy,10(3), 100289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, R. A. (2005). Striving for the sacred: Personal goals, life meaning, and religion. Journal of Social Issues,61(4), 731–745.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emmons, R. A., Cheung, C., & Tehrani, K. (1998). Assessing spirituality through personal goals: Implications for research on religion and subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research,45(1–3), 391–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fang, H., Randolph, R. V. D. G., Chrisman, J. J., & Barnett, T. (2013). Firm religiosity, bounded stakeholder salience, and stakeholder relationships in family firms. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion,10(3), 253–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galek, K., Flannelly, K. J., Ellison, C. G., Silton, N. R., & Jankowski, K. R. (2015). Religion, meaning and purpose, and mental health. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,7(1), 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao, J., & Bansal, P. (2013). Instrumental and integrative logics in business sustainability. Journal of Business Ethics,112(2), 241–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Mejia, L. R., Haynes, K., Nuñez-Nickel, M., & Moyano-Fuentes, J. (2007). Socioemotional wealth and business risks in family-controlled firms: Evidence from Spanish olive oil mills. Administrative Science,52(1), 106–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Mejia, L. R., Patel, P. C., & Zellweger, T. M. (2018). In the horns of the dilemma: Socioemotional wealth, financial wealth, and acquisitions in family firms. Journal of Management,44(4), 1369–1397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimes, M. A., & Bennett, R. H., III. (2015). Theocentric leadership: A new approach to God-honoring leadership. Quarterly Review of Business Disciplines,2(2), 103–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Los Angeles: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Jr., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., & Gudergan, S. P. (2018). Advanced issues in Partial Least Squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, E., Cruz, A. D., & Jack, S. (2017). Re-framing the status of narrative in family business research: Towards an understanding of families in business. Journal of Family Business Strategy,8(1), 3–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henley, A. (2017). Does religion influence entrepreneurial behaviour? International Small Business Journal,35(5), 597–617.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,43(1), 115–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Höchli, B., Brügger, A., & Messner, C. (2018). How focusing on superordinate goals motivates broad, long-term goal pursuit: A theoretical perspective. Frontiers in Psychology,9, 1879. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01879.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huhtala, M., Feldt, T., Hyvönen, K., & Mauno, S. (2013). Ethical organisational culture as a context for managers’ personal work goals. Journal of Business Ethics,114(2), 265–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hungerman, D. M. (2014). Do religious proscriptions matter? Evidence from a theory-based test. Journal of Human Resources,49(4), 1053–1093.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iannaccone, L. R. (1998). Introduction to the economics of religion. Journal of Economic Literature,36(3), 1465–1495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, F., Jiang, Z., Kim, K. A., & Zhang, M. (2015). Family-firm risk-taking: Does religion matter? Journal of Corporate Finance,33, 260–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellermanns, F. W. (2013). Spirituality and religion in family firms. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion,10(2), 112–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirchmaier, I., Prüfer, J., & Trautmann, S. T. (2018). Religion, moral attitudes and economic behavior. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization,148, 282–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooij, D. T., Kanfer, R., Betts, M., & Rudolph, C. W. (2018). Future time perspective: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology,103(8), 867–893.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotlar, J., & De Massis, A. (2013). Goal setting in family firms: Goal diversity, social interactions, and collective commitment to family-centered goals. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,37(6), 1263–1288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotlar, J., De Massis, A., Wright, M., & Frattini, F. (2018). Organizational goals: Antecedents, formation processes and implications for firm behavior and performance. International Journal of Management Reviews,20, S3–S18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W. Y., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. (2002). A theory of goal systems. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,34, 331–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latham, G. P. (2004). The motivational benefits of goal-setting. Academy of Management Perspectives,18(4), 126–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Breton-Miller, I., & Miller, D. (2006). Why do some family businesses out-compete? Governance, long-term orientations, and sustainable capability. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,30(6), 731–746.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Breton-Miller, I., & Miller, D. (2009). Agency vs. stewardship in public family firms: A social embeddedness reconciliation. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,33(6), 1169–1191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving social conflicts; selected papers on group dynamics. New York: Harper & Brothers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumpkin, G. T., & Brigham, K. H. (2011). Long-term orientation and intertemporal choice in family firms. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,35(6), 1149–1169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumpkin, G. T., Brigham, K. H., & Moss, T. W. (2010). Long-term orientation: Implications for the entrepreneurial orientation and performance of family businesses. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development,22(3–4), 241–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Madison, K., & Kellermanns, F. W. (2013). Is the spiritual bond bound by blood? An exploratory study of spiritual leadership in family firms. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion,10(2), 159–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maton, K. I., Dodgen, D., Domingo, S., Mariano, R., & Larson, D. B. (2005). Religion as a meaning system: Policy implications for the new millennium. Journal of Social Issues,61(4), 847–867.

    Google Scholar 

  • Memili, E., Welsh, D. H., & Luthans, F. (2013). Going beyond research on goal setting: A proposed role for organizational psychological capital of family firms. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,37(6), 1289–1296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D., & Le Breton-Miller, I. (2005). Managing for the long run: Lessons in competitive advantage from great family businesses. Harvard Business Press.

  • Miller, D., & Le Breton-Miller, I. L. (2014). Deconstructing socioemotional wealth. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,38(4), 713–720.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neal, J., & Vallejo, M. C. (2008). Family firms as incubators for spirituality in the workplace: Factors that nurture spiritual businesses. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion,5(2), 115–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nevins, J. L., Bearden, W. O., & Money, B. (2007). Ethical values and long-term orientation. Journal of Business Ethics,71(3), 261–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niven, K., & Healy, C. (2016). Susceptibility to the ‘dark side’ of goal-setting: Does moral justification influence the effect of goals on unethical behavior? Journal of Business Ethics,137(1), 115–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nuttin, J., & Lens, W. (1985). Future time perspective and motivation: Theory and research method. Leuven: Leuven University Press and Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheimer, L. (1987). Cognitive and social variables in the plan of action. In S. L. Friedman, E. K. Scholnick, & R. R. Cocking (Eds.), Blueprints for thinking: The role of planning in cognitive development (pp. 356–392). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parboteeah, K. P., Hoegl, M., & Cullen, J. B. (2008). Ethics and religion: An empirical test of a multidimensional model. Journal of Business Ethics,80(2), 387–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paterson, T. A., Specht, D., & Duchon, D. (2013). Exploring costs and consequences of religious expression in family businesses. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion,10(2), 138–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, A. W., & Lumpkin, G. T. (2011). Measurement in family business research: How do we measure up? Family Business Review,24(4), 287–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pieper, T. M. (2007). Mechanisms to assure long-term family business survival: A study of the dynamics of cohesion in multigenerational family business families. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pieper, T. M., & Klein, S. B. (2007). The bulleye: A systems approach to modeling family firms. Family Business Review,20(4), 301–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, B. J., & Cragg, W. (2010). Being virtuous and prosperous: SRI’s conflicting goals. Journal of Business Ethics,92(1), 21–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schnitker, S. A., & Emmons, R. A. (2013). Spiritual striving and seeking the sacred: Religion as meaningful goal-directed behavior. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,23(4), 315–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seijts, G. H., & Latham, G. P. (2000). The effects of goal setting and group size on performance in a social dilemma. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science,32(2), 104–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003). When opportunity knocks: Bottom-up priming of goals by means and its effects on self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,84(6), 1109–1122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, P., Salvato, C., & Reay, T. (2014). Temporal dimensions of family enterprise research. Family Business Review,27(1), 10–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate goals in the reduction of intergroup conflict. American Journal of Sociology,63(4), 349–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Lacante, M. (2004). Placing motivation and future time perspective theory in a temporal perspective. Educational Psychology Review,16(2), 121–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorenson, R. L. (2013). How moral and social values become embedded in family firms. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion,10(2), 116–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stafford, K., Danes, S. M., & Haynes, G. W. (2013). Long-term family firm survival and growth considering owning family adaptive capacity and federal disaster assistance receipt. Journal of Family Business Strategy,4(3), 188–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stamm, I., & Lubinski, C. (2011). Crossroads of family business research and firm demography: A critical assessment of family business survival rates. Journal of Family Business Strategy,2(3), 117–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (2007). The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel, and is it unique to humans? Behavioral and Brain Sciences,30(3), 299–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun, S. H., & Frese, M. (2013). Multiple goal pursuit. In E. A. Locke & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 177–194). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tagiuri, R., & Davis, J. (1996). Bivalent attributes of the family firm. Family Business Review,9(2), 199–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teuscher, U., & Mitchell, S. H. (2011). Relation between time perspective and delay discounting: A literature review. The Psychological Record,61(4), 613–632.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vazquez, P., & Rocha, H. (2018). On the goals of family firms: A review and integration. Journal of Family Business Strategy,9(2), 94–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. I., Jr., Pieper, T. M., Kellermanns, F. W., & Astrachan, J. H. (2018). Family firm goals and their effects on strategy, family and organization behavior: A Review and research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews,20(S1), S63–S82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. I., Jr., Pieper, T. M., Kellermanns, F. W., & Astrachan, J. H. (2019a). Family business goal formation: A literature review and discussion of alternative algorithms. Management Review Quarterly,69(3), 329–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. I., Jr., Pieper, T. M., Kellermanns, F. W., & Astrachan, J. H. (2019b). Applying an organizational effectiveness approach to measure family business performance. Journal of Family Business Management,9(3), 349–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, S. R., Whitmoyer, J. G., Pieper, T. M., Astrachan, J. H., Hair, J. F., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). Method trends and method needs: Examining methods needed for accelerating the field. Journal of Family Business Strategy,5(1), 4–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, A., Tjosvold, D., & Zhang, P. (2005). Supply chain relationships for customer satisfaction in China: Interdependence and cooperative goals. Asia Pacific Journal of Management,22(2), 179–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, M., Bakker, R., & Fisher, G. (2018). Back to the future: A time-calibrated theory of entrepreneurial action. Academy of Management Review. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2018.0060.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worden, S. (2005). Religion in strategic leadership: A positivistic, normative/theological, and strategic analysis. Journal of Business Ethics,57(3), 221–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, A., Lumpkin, G. T., Sorenson, R. L., & Brigham, K. H. (2012). The landscape of family business outcomes: A summary and numerical taxonomy of dependent variables. Family Business Review,25(1), 33–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahra, S. A. (2012). Organizational learning and entrepreneurship in family firms: Exploring the moderating effect of ownership and cohesion. Small Business Economics,38(1), 51–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahra, S. A., Hayton, J. C., Neubaum, D. O., Dibrell, C., & Craig, J. (2008). Culture of family commitment and strategic flexibility: The moderating effect of stewardship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice,32(6), 1035–1054.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaleski, Z. (Ed.). (1994). Psychology of future orientation. Lublin: Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaloudek, J. A., Ruder-Vásconez, C., & Doll, K. C. (2017). Critique of the religion and spirituality discourse in family articles. Journal of Family Theory & Review,9(3), 347–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zellweger, T. M., & Astrachan, J. H. (2008). On the emotional value of owning a firm. Family Business Review,21(4), 347–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zellweger, T. M., Nason, R. S., & Nordqvist, M. (2012). From longevity of firms to transgenerational entrepreneurship of families: Introducing family entrepreneurial orientation. Family Business Review,25(2), 136–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., Fishbach, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2007). The dilution model: How additional goals undermine the perceived instrumentality of a shared path. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,92(3), 389–401.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Belk College of Business at University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA

    Torsten M. Pieper

  2. Jennings A. Jones College of Business, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN, USA

    Ralph I. Williams Jr. & Lucy M. Matthews

  3. Munir Abdul Lalani Center for Entrepreneurship & Free Enterprise Distinguished Professor of Entrepreneurship, Dillard College of Business Administration, Wichita Falls, TX, USA

    Scott C. Manley

Authors
  1. Torsten M. Pieper
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ralph I. Williams Jr.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Scott C. Manley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lucy M. Matthews
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ralph I. Williams Jr..

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix 1

Appendix 1

Family Cohesion Items

Survey items used to measure family cohesion (Zahra 2012). Survey participants were asked to report their level of agreement with the following statements using a five-point Likert scale anchored by ‘strongly disagree’ and ‘strongly agree’.

  • Members of the owning-family care deeply about one another.

  • Members of the owning-family support one another.

  • Members of the owning-family are proud of being part of the family.

  • Members of the owning-family depend on each other.

  • Members of the owning-family work closely together to accomplish family goals.

  • Members of the owning-family would do almost anything to remain together.

  • Members of the owning-family are always engaged in dysfunctional conflicts (deleted).

  • Members of the owning-family stick together.

Firm Performance Items

Survey items used to measure firm performance (Eddleston and Kellermanns 2007). Survey participants were asked how they would rate their firm’s performance in the following areas relative to their main competitors, using a five-point Likert scale anchored by ‘strongly disagree’ and ‘strongly agree’.

  • Profitability (net profit before taxes)

  • Growth in sales

  • Return on equity

  • Return on assets

  • Return on investment

  • Growth in market share

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pieper, T.M., Williams Jr., R.I., Manley, S.C. et al. What Time May Tell: An Exploratory Study of the Relationship Between Religiosity, Temporal Orientation, and Goals in Family Business. J Bus Ethics 163, 759–773 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04386-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04386-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation