Abstract
Recent research on gender and sexual majority individuals suggests that their attractions, identities, and experiences may not be as homogenous or easily generalizable as is often assumed. Sexual configurations theory (SCT; van Anders, 2015) is a framework for conceptualizing individuals’ partnered sexualities and gender/sexes with a focus on gender/sex and sexual diversity. SCT has been successfully used in recent empirical work with gender and sexual minority individuals (Schudson, Manley, Diamond, & van Anders, 2018), but it has not yet been tested with heterosexual, cisgender individuals. In the present study, we tested the use of SCT in qualitative interviews with 26 gender and sexual majority participants to address the following research questions: What are the strengths and weaknesses of SCT for representing heterosexual, cisgender individuals’ gender/sexes and partnered sexualities? How do gender and sexual majority individuals use SCT to express their gender/sexes and partnered sexualities? And, what insights about sexual and gender diversity can be gained from using SCT with a gender and sexual majority sample? Using thematic analysis, we evaluated how participants interacted with SCT and the SCT diagrams. Results showed that our participants used components of SCT to convey comprehensive and nuanced interests, which included gender/sex and sexual diversity outside of what is typically expected in research on heterosexual, cisgender individuals. We discuss findings and challenges specific to working with majority participants and offer implications for future work on gender/sex and sexual majorities and on gender/sex and sexual diversity in general.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, E. (2010). ‘‘At least with cheating there is an attempt at monogamy’’: Cheating and monogamism among undergraduate heterosexual men. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 851–872. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510373908
Beischel, W. J., Schudson, Z. C., & van Anders, S. M. (2018). Diagramming gender/sex diversity: A novel visual method for assessing individual gender/sex via sexual configurations theory. Manuscript in preparation.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
Case, K. A. (2007). Raising male privilege awareness and reducing sexism: An evaluation of diversity courses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 426–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00391.x.
Case, K. A. (2012). Discovering the privilege of whiteness: White women’s reflections on anti-racist identity and ally behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 78–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01737.x.
Case, K. A., Hensley, R., & Anderson, A. (2014). Reflecting on heterosexual and male privilege: Interventions to raise awareness. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 722–740. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12088.
Case, K. A., Iuzzini, J., & Hopkins, M. (2012). Systems of privilege: Intersections, awareness, and implications. Social Issues, 68, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01732.x.
Case, K., & Stewart, B. (2009). Heterosexual privilege awareness, prejudice, and support of gay marriage among diversity course students. College Teaching, 58, 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567550903252843.
Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64, 170–180.
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Identity politics, intersectionality, and violence against women. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241–1299.
Diamond, L. M. (2002). “Having a girlfriend without knowing it”: Intimate friendships among adolescent sexual-minority women. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 6, 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1300/J155v06n01_02.
Edwards, K. E., & Jones, S. R. (2009). “Putting my man face on”: A grounded theory of college men’s gender identity development. Journal of College Student Development, 50, 210–228. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0063.
Eliason, M. J. (1995). Accounts of sexual identity formation in heterosexual students. Sex Roles, 32, 821–834. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01560191.
Friedman, M. S., Silvestre, A. J., Gold, M. A., Markovic, N., Savin-Williams, R. C., Huggins, J., … Sell, R. L. (2004). Adolescents define sexual orientation and suggest ways to measure it. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.03.006.
Galupo, M. P., Henise, S. B., & Mercer, N. L. (2016). “The labels don’t work very well”: Transgender individuals’ conceptualizations of sexual orientation and sexual identity. International Journal of Transgenderism, 17, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2016.1189373.
Galupo, M. P., Mitchell, R. C., & Davis, K. S. (2015). Sexual minority self-identification: Multiple identities and complexity. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2, 355. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000131.
Galupo, M. P., Mitchell, R. C., Grynkiewicz, A. L., & Davis, K. S. (2014). Sexual minority reflections on the Kinsey Scale and the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Bisexuality, 14, 404–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2014.929553.
Haupert, M. L., Gesselman, A. N., Moors, A. C., Fisher, H. E., & Garcia, J. R. (2017). Prevalence of experiences with consensual nonmonogamous relationships: Findings from two national samples of single Americans. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 43, 424–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2016.1178675.
Hegarty, P. (2010). A stone in the soup? Changes in sexual prejudice and essentialist beliefs among British students in a class on LGBT psychology. Psychology & Sexuality, 1, 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419891003634356.
Helms, J. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling a black and white model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12, 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000084124013.
Joel, D., Tarrasch, R., Berman, Z., Mukamel, M., & Ziv, E. (2014). Queering gender: Studying gender identity in ‘normative’ individuals. Psychology and Sexuality, 5, 291–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2013.830640.
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.
Klein, F., Sepekoff, B., & Wolf, T. J. (1985). Sexual orientation: A multi-variable dynamic process. Journal of Homosexuality, 11, 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v11n01_04.
Klein, F., & Weinrich, J. D. (2014). Homogeneous gynephiles and heterogeneous androphiles: A factor analysis of differences and similarities in attractions to the sexes as a function of sexual orientation. Journal of Bisexuality, 14, 468–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299716.2014.938285.
Klesse, C. (2006). Polyamory and its ‘others’: Contesting the terms of non-monogamy. Sexualities, 9, 565–583. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460706069986.
Kolber, J. (2017). Having it both ways: White denial of racial salience while claiming oppression. Sociology Compass, 11, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12448.
Martinez, R. O., & Dukes, R. L. (1997). The effects of ethnic identity, ethnicity, and gender on adolescent well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 503–516. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024525821078.
McIntosh, P. (2012). Reflections and future directions for privilege studies. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01744.x.
Paluck, E. L., & Green, D. P. (2009). Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of research and practice. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 339–367. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163607.
Phinney, J. S., & Alipuria, L. L. (1990). Ethnic identity in college students from four ethnic groups. Journal of Adolescence, 13, 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-1971(90)90006-S.
Pratto, F., & Stewart, A. L. (2012). Group dominance and the half-blindness of privilege. Social Issues, 68, 28–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01734.x.
Remafedi, G., Resnick, M., Blum, R., & Harris, L. (1992). Demography of sexual orientation in adolescents. Pediatrics, 89, 714–721.
Sanders, M. R., & Mahalingam, R. (2012). Under the radar: The role of invisible discourse in understanding class-based privilege. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01739.x.
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Diamond, L. M. (2000). Sexual identity trajectories among sexual-minority youths: Gender comparisons. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29, 607–627. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002058505138.
Scherrer, K. S. (2008). Coming to an asexual identity: Negotiating identity, negotiating desire. Sexualities, 11, 621–641. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460708094269.
Schudson, Z. C., Dibble, E. R., & van Anders, S. M. (2017). Gender/sex and sexual diversity via sexual configurations theory: Insights from a qualitative study with gender and sexual minorities. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4, 422–437. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000241.
Schudson, Z. C., Manley, M. H., Diamond, L. M., & van Anders, S. M. (2018). Heterogeneity in gender/sex sexualities: An exploration of gendered physical and psychological traits in attractions to women and men. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 1077–1085. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1402290.
Scott, D. A., & Robinson, T. L. (2001). White male identity development: The key model. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79, 415–421. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2001.tb01988.x.
Sell, R. L. (1997). Defining and measuring sexual orientation: A review. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26, 643–658. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024528427013.
Smith, E. J. (1991). Ethnic identity development: Toward the development of a theory within the context of majority/minority status. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70, 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1991.tb01581.x.
St. Louis, G. R., & Liem, J. H. (2005). Ego identity, ethnic identity, and the psychosocial well-being of ethnic minority and majority college students. Identity, 5, 227–246. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532706xid0503_1.
Tate, C. C., & Bettergarcia, J. N. (2018). Measuring gender self-categorization in adulthood for cisgender and transgender populations: Assessing self and gender category overlap. Manuscript in preparation.
Tate, C. C., Youssef, C. P., & Bettergarcia, J. N. (2014). Integrating the study of transgender spectrum and cisgender experiences of self-categorization from a personality perspective. Review of General Psychology, 18, 302–312. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000019.
Thompson, E. M. (2006). Girl friend or girlfriend? Same-sex friendship and bisexual images as a context for flexible sexual identity among young women. Journal of Bisexuality, 6, 47–67. https://doi.org/10.1300/J159v06n03_04.
Thompson, E. M., & Morgan, E. M. (2008). ‘Mostly straight’ young women: Variations in sexual behavior and identity development. Developmental Psychology, 44, 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.15.
van Anders, S. M. (2015). Beyond sexual orientation: Integrating gender/sex and diverse sexualities via sexual configurations theory. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 1177–1213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0490-8.
Vrangalova, Z., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2012). Mostly heterosexual and mostly gay/lesbian: Evidence for new sexual orientation identities. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9921-y.
Worthington, R. L., & Mohr, J. J. (2002). Heterosexual identity development: A multidimensional model of individual and social identity. The Counseling Psychologist, 30, 496–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/00100002030004002.
Acknowledgments
We thank Aki Gormezano for assistance with interviewing, and van Anders lab members Jose Estrada, Hope Norris, Elisabeth Silver, and Emily Spence for assistance with transcription. We also thank Emily Dibble for her help with setting up the project and providing interviewer training.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Abed, E.C., Schudson, Z.C., Gunther, O.D. et al. Sexual and Gender Diversity Among Sexual and Gender/Sex Majorities: Insights via Sexual Configurations Theory. Arch Sex Behav 48, 1423–1441 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1340-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1340-2