Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Both a same-sex sexual orientation and gender nonconformity have been linked with poorer well-being; however, sexual orientation and gender nonconformity are also correlated. It is, therefore, critical to investigate their independent contributions to well-being. Based on survey responses of 230 female and 245 male high school seniors, the present study is one of the first to provide empirical data on this topic. Both childhood and adolescent gender nonconformity were negatively related to well-being. In the same analyses, neither sexual orientation nor biological sex was a significant predictor of well-being. These results suggest that gender-atypical traits may be more relevant for psychological health than a same-sex sexual orientation. Both environmental and biological influences may account for these findings.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Harlaar, N., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., et al. (2010). Common genetic effects of gender atypical behavior in childhood and sexual orientation in adulthood: A study of Finnish twins. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 81–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., Johansson, A., et al. (2009). Psychiatric symptoms and same-sex sexual attraction and behavior in light of childhood gender atypical behavior and parental relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 494–504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ambady, N., Hallahan, M., & Conner, B. (1999). Accuracy of judgments of sexual orientation from thin slices of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 538–547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aube, J., & Koestner, R. (1992). Gender characteristics and adjustment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 485–493.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 524–536.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Kim, P. Y., Hills, A., & Linsenmeier, J. A. W. (1997). Butch, femme, or straight acting? Partner preferences of gay men and lesbians. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 960–973.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Willerman, L., & Parks, C. (1991). A test of the maternal stress theory of human male homosexuality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 20, 277–293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, S. J., & Zucker, K. J. (1997). Gender identity disorder: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 872–880.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caldera, Y. M., Huston, A. C., & O’Brien, M. (1989). Social interactions and play patterns of parents and toddlers with feminine, masculine, and neutral toys. Child Development, 60, 70–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, D., & McCloskey, L. A. (1983). Peers and the maintenance of sex-typed behavior: The development of children’s conceptions of cross-gender behavior in their peers. Social Cognition, 2, 294–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2009). Burden of psychiatric morbidity among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals in the California quality of life survey. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 647–658.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, S. D., Mays, V. M., Alegria, M., Ortega, A. N., & Takeuchi, D. (2007). Mental health and substance use disorders among Latino and Asian American lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 785–794.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Owen, A., Kaijser, V. G., Bradley, S. J., & Zucker, K. J. (2003). Demographic characteristics, social competence, and behavior problems in children with gender identity disorder: A cross-national, cross-clinic comparative analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 41–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Graaf, R., Sandfort, T. G. M., & ten Have, M. (2006). Suicidality and sexual orientation: Differences between men and women in a general population-based sample from the Netherlands. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 253–262.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drummond, K., Bradley, S. J., Peterson-Badali, M., & Zucker, K. J. (2008). A follow-up study of girls with gender identity disorder. Developmental Psychology, 44, 34–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, M. P., Bailey, J. M., Kirk, K. M., & Martin, N. G. (2000). The subtlety of sex-atypicality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29, 549–565.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, B. I. (1985). Beyond the reinforcement principle: Another step toward understanding sex role development. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1097–1104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Beautrais, A. L. (1999). Is sexual orientation related to mental health problems and suicidality in young people? Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 876–880.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frable, D. E. S., Wortman, C., & Joseph, J. (1997). Predicting self-esteem, well-being, and distress in a cohort of gay men: The importance of cultural stigma, personal visibility, community networks, and positive identity. Journal of Personality, 65, 599–624.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frisell, T., Lichtenstein, P., Rahman, Q., & Långström, N. (2010). Psychiatric morbidity associated with same-sex sexual behaviour: Influence of minority stress and familial factors. Psychological Medicine, 40, 315–324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudio, R. (1994). Sounding gay: Pitch properties in the speech of gay and straight men. American Speech, 69, 30–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilman, S. E., Cochran, S. D., Mays, V. M., Hughes, M., Ostrow, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). Risk of psychiatric disorders among individuals reporting same-sex sexual partners in the national comorbidity survey. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 933–939.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, R. (1987). The “sissy boy syndrome” and the development of homosexuality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harry, J. (1983a). Defeminization and adult psychological well-being among male homosexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 12, 1–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harry, J. (1983b). Parasuicide, gender, and gender deviance. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 350–361.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma “Get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 707–730.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M., & Garnets, L. D. (2007). Sexual orientation and mental health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 353–375.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hettema, J. M., Neale, M. C., & Kendler, K. S. (2001). A review and meta-analysis of the genetic epidemiology of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1568–1578.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horn, S. S. (2007). Adolescents’ acceptance of same-sex peers based on sexual orientation and gender expression. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 36, 363–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Impett, E. A., Schooler, D., & Tolman, D. L. (2006). To be seen and not heard: Femininity ideology and adolescent girls’ sexual health. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 131–144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, K. L., Gill, S., Reichman, V., & Tassinary, L. G. (2007). Swagger, sway, and sexuality: Judging sexual orientation from body motion and morphology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 321–334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 1007–1022.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, M., Semlyen, J., Tai, S. S., Killaspy, H., Osborn, D., Popelyuk, D., et al. (2008). A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people. BMC Psychiatry. doi:10.1186/1471-1244X-1188-1170.

  • Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landolt, M. A., Bartholomew, K., Saffrey, C., Oram, D., Perlman, D., & Bartholomew, K. (2004). Gender nonconformity, childhood rejection, and adult attachment: A study of gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33, 117–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langlois, J. H., & Downs, A. (1980). Mothers, fathers, and peers as socialization agents of sex-typed play behaviors in young children. Child Development, 51, 1237–1247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2000). Gender-related traits in gay men, lesbian women, and heterosexual men and women: The virtual identity of homosexual-heterosexual diagnosticity and gender diagnosticity. Journal of Personality, 68, 899–926.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2005a). Gender, nature, and nurture (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2005b). Sexual orientation and personality. Annual Review of Sex Research, 16, 119–153.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2005c). Subdomains of gender-related occupational interests: Do they form a cohesive bipolar m-f dimension? Journal of Personality, 73, 693–729.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R., & Hershberger, S. (1999). Genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in masculinity, femininity, and gender diagnosticity: Analyzing data from a classic twin study. Journal of Personality, 67, 127–155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1998). The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, C., Blissett, J., & Oldfield, C. (2001). Sexual orientation and eating psychopathology: The role of masculinity and femininity. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 314–318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parrott, D. J. (2009). Aggression toward gay men as gender role enforcement: Effects of male role norms, sexual prejudice, and masculine gender role stress. Journal of Personality, 77, 1137–1166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the satisfaction with life scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plöderl, M. R., & Fartacek, R. (2009). Childhood gender nonconformity and harassment as predictors of suicidality among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual Austrians. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 400–410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poon, C. S., & Saewyc, E. M. (2009). Out yonder: Sexual-minority adolescents in rural communities in British Columbia. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 118–124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, C. D., & Groze, V. K. (1994). Risk-factors for suicide among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths. Social Work, 39, 504–513.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Remafedi, G., French, S., Story, M., Resnick, M. D., & Blum, R. (1998). The relationship between suicide risk and sexual orientation: Results of a population-based study. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 57–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., Gygax, L., & Bailey, J. M. (2008). Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: Evidence from home videos. Developmental Psychology, 44, 46–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., Gygax, L., Garcia, S. C., & Bailey, J. M. (2010). Dissecting “gaydar”: Accuracy and the role of masculinity-femininity. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 124–140.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T. (2005). Beyond risk: Resilience in the lives of sexual minority youth. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Issues in Education, 2, 5–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T., & Joyner, K. (2001). Adolescent sexual orientation and suicide risk: Evidence from a national study. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1276–1281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saewyc, E. M. (2007). Contested conclusions: Claims that can (and cannot) be made from the current research on gay, lesbian, and bisexual teen suicide attempts. Journal of LGBT Health Research, 3, 79–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandfort, T. G. M., de Graaf, R., Bijl, R. V., & Schnabel, P. (2001). Same-sex sexual behavior and psychiatric disorders: Findings from the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and incidence study (NEMESIS). Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 85–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandfort, T. G. M., Melendez, R. M., & Diaz, R. M. (2007). Gender nonconformity, homophobia, and mental distress in Latino gay and bisexual men. Journal of Sex Research, 44, 181–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C. (2001a). A critique of research on sexual-minority youths. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 5–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C. (2001b). Suicide attempts among sexual-minority youths: Population and measurement issues. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 983–991.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C. (2005). The new gay teenager. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C., & Ream, G. L. (2003). Suicide attempts among sexual-minority male youth. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 509–522.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skidmore, C. W., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., & Bailey, J. M. (2006). Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 685–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. E., & Leaper, C. (2006). Self-perceived gender typicality and the peer context during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 91–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strong, S. M., Singh, D., & Randall, P. K. (2000). Childhood gender nonconformity and body dissatisfaction in gay and heterosexual men. Sex Roles, 43, 427–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stubbe, J. H., Posthuma, D., Boomsma, D. I., & De Geus, E. J. C. (2005). Heritability of life satisfaction in adults: A twin-family study. Psychological Medicine, 35, 1581–1588.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, B., & Leo, R. (1992). Gender typing, importance of multiple roles, and mental health consequences for women. Sex Roles, 27, 307–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Aardweg, G. J. (1984). Parents of homosexuals—not guilty? Interpretation of childhood psychological data. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 38, 180–189.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallien, M. S. C., Veenstra, R., Kreukels, B. P. C., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2010). Peer group status of gender dysphoric children: A sociometric study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 553–560.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinrich, J. D., Grant, I., Jacobson, D. L., Robinson, S. R., McCutchan, J. A., & HNRC. (1992). Effects of recalled childhood gender nonconformity on adult genitoerotic role and AIDS exposure. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 21, 559–585.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wichstrøm, L., & Hegna, K. (2003). Sexual orientation and suicide attempt: A longitudinal study of the general Norwegian adolescent population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 144–151.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, P. T., Kettlewell, G. E., & Sproule, C. F. (1985). On the importance of being masculine: Sex role, attribution, and women’s career achievement. Sex Roles, 12, 757–769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, R., & Sweeting, H. (2004). Adolescent bullying, relationships, psychological well-being, and gender-atypical behavior: A gender diagnosticity approach. Sex Roles, 50, 525–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zietsch, B., Verweij, K., Bailey, J., Wright, M., & Martin, N. (2009). Sexual orientation and psychiatric vulnerability: A twin study of neuroticism and psychoticism. Archives of Sexual Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10508-10009-19508-10504.

  • Zucker, K. J. (2005a). Measurement of psychosexual differentiation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 375–388.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J. (2005b, October). Predictors of psychopathology in boys with gender identity disorder. In S. J. Bradley (Chair), Gender identity disorder in children and adolescents. Paper presented at the joint meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Canadian Academy of Child Psychiatry, Toronto.

  • Zucker, K. J., Bradley, S. J., & Sanikhani, M. (1997). Sex differences in referral rates of children with gender identity disorder: Some hypotheses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 217–227.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., Mitchell, J. N., Bradley, S. J., Tkachuk, J., Cantor, J. M., & Allin, S. M. (2006). The Recalled Childhood Gender Identity/Gender Role Questionnaire: Psychometric properties. Sex Roles, 54, 469–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Development, Cornell University, B42 Martha Van Rensselaer Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA

    Gerulf Rieger & Ritch C. Savin-Williams

Authors
  1. Gerulf Rieger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ritch C. Savin-Williams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gerulf Rieger.

Appendix

Appendix

Three Kinsey-type scales assessing sexual attractions, fantasies, and infatuations, respectively

Score

Description

0

Sexual attractions towards females only

1

Most sexual attractions towards females, but an occasional sexual attraction about males

2

Most sexual attractions towards females, but some definite sexual attractions towards males

3

Sexual attractions about equally divided between males and females

4

Most sexual attractions towards males, but some definite sexual attractions towards females

5

Most sexual attractions towards males, but an occasional sexual attraction about females

6

Sexual attractions towards males only

Score

Description

0

Sexual fantasies towards females only

1

Most sexual fantasies towards females, but an occasional sexual fantasy about males

2

Most sexual fantasies towards females, but some definite sexual fantasies towards males

3

Sexual fantasies about equally divided between males and females

4

Most sexual fantasies towards males, but some definite sexual fantasies towards females

5

Most sexual fantasies towards males, but an occasional sexual fantasy about females

6

Sexual fantasies towards males only

Score

Description

0

Sexual infatuations towards females only

1

Most sexual infatuations towards females, but an occasional sexual infatuation about males

2

Most sexual infatuations towards females, but some definite sexual infatuations towards males

3

Sexual infatuations about equally divided between males and females

4

Most sexual infatuations towards males, but some definite sexual infatuations towards females

5

Most sexual infatuations towards males, but an occasional sexual infatuation about females

6

Sexual infatuations towards males only

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rieger, G., Savin-Williams, R.C. Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being. Arch Sex Behav 41, 611–621 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9738-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation