Abstract
Drug resistance of cancer cells is often correlated with apoptosis evasion; however, an active involvement of autophagy in this scenario has been recently proposed, based on the evidence that autophagy could exert a protective role toward the activation of apoptosis in cancer cells. In this review, we briefly review the basic features of apoptosis, and we describe in details the molecular patterns of autophagy, with a special emphasis on its still controversial physiological function(s). The crucial factors governing the cross talk between autophagy and apoptosis will be illustrated.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Giansanti V, Scovassi AI (2008) Apoptosis and cancer. In: Mondello C (ed) Multiple pathways in cancer development. Transworld Research Network, Kerala, pp 135–148
Stoffel A (2010) Targeted therapies for solid tumors: current status and future perspectives. BioDrugs 24:303–316
Chen N, Karantza-Wadsworth V (2009) Role and regulation of autophagy in cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta 1793:1516–1523
Chen N, Debnath J (2010) Autophagy and tumorigenesis. FEBS Lett 584:1427–1435
Lockshin RA, Zakeri Z (2004) Apoptosis, autophagy, and more. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 36:2405–2419
Klionsky DJ (2007) Autophagy: from phenomenology to molecular understanding in less than a decade. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 8:931–937
Fimia GM, Piacentini M (2010) Regulation of autophagy in mammals and its interplay with apoptosis. Cell Mol Life Sci 67:1581–1588
Gonzalez-Polo RA, Boya P, Pauleau AL et al (2005) The apoptosis/autophagy paradox: autophagic vacuolization before apoptotic death. J Cell Sci 118:3091–3102
Lockshin RA, Williams CM (1964) Programmed cell death II. Endocrine potentiation of the breakdown of the intersegmental muscle of silkmoths. J Insect Physiol 10:643–649
Lockshin RA, Williams CM (1965) Programmed cell death—I. Cytology of degeneration in the intersegmental muscles of the pernyi silkmoth. J Insect Physiol 11:123–133
Lockshin RA, William CM (1965) Programmed cell death. 3. Neural control of the breakdown of the intersegmental muscles of silkmoths. J Insect Physiol 11:601–610
Lockshin RA, Williams CM (1965) Programmed cell death. IV. The influence of drugs on the breakdown of the intersegmental muscles of silkmoths. J Insect Physiol 11:803–809
Lockshin RA, Williams CM (1965) Programmed cell death. V. Cytolytic enzymes in relation to the breakdown of the intersegmental muscles of silkmoths. J Insect Physiol 11:831–844
Glucksmann A (1965) Cell death in normal development. Arch Biol 76:419–437
Saunders JW Jr (1966) Death in embryonic systems. Science 154:604–612
Kerr JF, Wyllie AH, Currie AR (1972) Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br J Cancer 26:239–257
Giansanti V, Scovassi AI (2008) Cell death: a one-way journey to the graveyard. Open Biol J 1:27–34
Lahm A, Paradisi A, Green DR, Melino G (2003) Death fold domain interaction in apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 10:10–12
Chaigne-Delalande B, Moreau JF, Legembre P (2008) Rewinding the DISC. Arch Immunol Ther Exp 56:9–14
Pennarun B, Meijer A, de Vries EG, Kleibeuker JH, Kruyt F, de Jong S (2010) Playing the DISC: turning on TRAIL death receptor-mediated apoptosis in cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta 1805:123–140
Chowdhury I, Tharakan B, Bhat GK (2008) Caspases—an update. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 151:10–27
Galluzzi L, Morselli E, Kepp O et al (2010) Mitochondrial gateways to cancer. Mol Aspects Med 31:1–20
Wong WW, Puthalakath H (2008) Bcl-2 family proteins: the sentinels of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. IUBMB Life 60:390–397
Green DR (2005) Apoptotic pathways: ten minutes to dead. Cell 121:671–674
Fadeel B, Ottosson A, Pervaiz S (2008) Big wheel keeps on turning: apoptosome regulation and its role in chemoresistance. Cell Death Differ 15:443–452
Srinivasula SM, Ashwell JD (2008) IAPs: what’s in a name? Mol Cell 30:123–135
Altieri DC (2010) Survivin and IAP proteins in cell-death mechanisms. Biochem J 430:199–205
Martinez-Ruiz G, Maldonado V, Ceballos-Cancino G, Grajeda JP, Melendez-Zajgla J (2008) Role of Smac/DIABLO in cancer progression. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 27:48
Vande Walle L, Lamkanfi M, Vandenabeele P (2008) The mitochondrial serine protease HtrA2/Omi: an overview. Cell Death Differ 15:453–460
Scovassi AI, Torriglia A (2003) Activation of DNA-degrading enzymes during apoptosis. Eur J Histochem 47:185–194
Torriglia A, Perani P, Brossas JY et al (2000) A caspase-independent cell clearance program. The LEI/L-DNase II pathway. Ann N Y Acad Sci 926:192–203
Altairac S, Zeggai S, Perani P, Courtois Y, Torriglia A (2003) Apoptosis induced by Na+/H+ antiport inhibition activates the LEI/L-DNase II pathway. Cell Death Differ 10:548–557
Brossas JY, Tanguy R, Brignole-Baudouin F, Courtois Y, Torriglia A, Treton J (2004) L-DNase II associated with active process during ethanol induced cell death in ARPE-19. Mol Vis 10:65–73
Torriglia A, Lepretre C (2009) LEI/L-DNase II: interplay between caspase-dependent and independent pathways. Front Biosci 14:4836–4847
Wang Y, Dawson VL, Dawson TM (2009) Poly(ADP-ribose) signals to mitochondrial AIF: a key event in parthanatos. Exp Neurol 218:193–202
Savill J, Fadok V (2000) Corpse clearance defines the meaning of cell death. Nature 407:784–788
Mizushima N, Levine B (2010) Autophagy in mammalian development and differentiation. Nat Cell Biol 12:823–830
Yang Z, Klionsky DJ (2010) Eaten alive: a history of macroautophagy. Nat Cell Biol 12:814–822
Takeshige K, Baba M, Tsuboi S, Noda T, Ohsumi Y (1992) Autophagy in yeast demonstrated with proteinase-deficient mutants and conditions for its induction. J Cell Biol 119:301–311
Matsuura A, Tsukada M, Wada Y, Ohsumi Y (1997) Apg1p, a novel protein kinase required for the autophagic process in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Gene 192:245–250
Nakatogawa H, Suzuki K, Kamada Y, Ohsumi Y (2009) Dynamics and diversity in autophagy mechanisms: lessons from yeast. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 10:458–467
Todde V, Veenhuis M, van der Klei IJ (2009) Autophagy: principles and significance in health and disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 1792:3–13
Tolkovsky AM (2009) Mitophagy. Biochim Biophys Acta 1793:1508–1515
Goldman SJ, Taylor R, Zhang Y, Jin S (2010) Autophagy and the degradation of mitochondria. Mitochondrion 10:309–315
Mizushima N (2010) The role of the Atg1/ULK1 complex in autophagy regulation. Curr Opin Cell Biol 22:132–139
Neufeld TP (2010) TOR-dependent control of autophagy: biting the hand that feeds. Curr Opin Cell Biol 22:157–168
Wang RC, Levine B (2010) Autophagy in cellular growth control. FEBS Lett 584:1417–1426
Funderburk SF, Wang QJ, Yue Z (2010) The Beclin 1-VPS34 complex—at the crossroads of autophagy and beyond. Trends Cell Biol 20:355–362
Fimia GM, Bartolomeo SD, Piacentini M, Cecconi F (2011) Unleashing the Ambra1-Beclin 1 complex from dynein chains: Ulk1 sets Ambra1 free to induce autophagy. Autophagy 7:115–117
Burman C, Ktistakis NT (2010) Autophagosome formation in mammalian cells. Semin Immunopathol 32:397–413
Juhasz G, Neufeld TP (2006) Autophagy: a forty-year search for a missing membrane source. PLoS Biol 4:e36
Axe EL, Walker SA, Manifava M et al (2008) Autophagosome formation from membrane compartments enriched in phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate and dynamically connected to the endoplasmic reticulum. J Cell Biol 182:685–701
Hayashi-Nishino M, Fujita N, Noda T, Yamaguchi A, Yoshimori T, Yamamoto A (2009) A subdomain of the endoplasmic reticulum forms a cradle for autophagosome formation. Nat Cell Biol 11:1433–1437
Yla-Anttila P, Vihinen H, Jokitalo E, Eskelinen EL (2009) 3D tomography reveals connections between the phagophore and endoplasmic reticulum. Autophagy 5:1180–1185
Mizushima N (2007) Autophagy: process and function. Genes Dev 21:2861–2873
Mizushima N, Klionsky DJ (2007) Protein turnover via autophagy: implications for metabolism. Annu Rev Nutr 27:19–40
Xie Z, Klionsky DJ (2007) Autophagosome formation: core machinery and adaptations. Nat Cell Biol 9:1102–1109
Glick D, Barth S, Macleod KF (2010) Autophagy: cellular and molecular mechanisms. J Pathol 221:3–12
Webb JL, Ravikumar B, Rubinsztein DC (2004) Microtubule disruption inhibits autophagosome-lysosome fusion: implications for studying the roles of aggresomes in polyglutamine diseases. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 36:2541–2550
Ruivo R, Anne C, Sagne C, Gasnier B (2009) Molecular and cellular basis of lysosomal transmembrane protein dysfunction. Biochim Biophys Acta 1793:636–649
Chen Y, Klionsky DJ (2011) The regulation of autophagy—unanswered questions. J Cell Sci 124:161–170
Behrends C, Sowa ME, Gygi SP, Harper JW (2010) Network organization of the human autophagy system. Nature 466:68–76
Homma K, Suzuki K, Sugawara H (2011) The Autophagy Database: an all-inclusive information resource on autophagy that provides nourishment for research. Nucleic Acids Res 39:D986–D990
Singh R, Kaushik S, Wang Y et al (2009) Autophagy regulates lipid metabolism. Nature 458:1131–1135
Olofsson SO, Bostrom P, Andersson L, Rutberg M, Perman J, Boren J (2009) Lipid droplets as dynamic organelles connecting storage and efflux of lipids. Biochim Biophys Acta 1791:448–458
Walther TC, Farese RV Jr (2009) The life of lipid droplets. Biochim Biophys Acta 1791:459–466
Rabinowitz JD, White E (2010) Autophagy and metabolism. Science 330:1344–1348
Rodriguez-Navarro JA, Cuervo AM (2010) Autophagy and lipids: tightening the knot. Semin Immunopathol 32:343–353
Levine B (2005) Eating oneself and uninvited guests: autophagy-related pathways in cellular defense. Cell 120:159–162
Lum JJ, Bauer DE, Kong M et al (2005) Growth factor regulation of autophagy and cell survival in the absence of apoptosis. Cell 120:237–248
Kuma A, Hatano M, Matsui M et al (2004) The role of autophagy during the early neonatal starvation period. Nature 432:1032–1036
Tsukamoto S, Kuma A, Mizushima N (2008) The role of autophagy during the oocyte-to-embryo transition. Autophagy 4:1076–1078
Qu X, Zou Z, Sun Q et al (2007) Autophagy gene-dependent clearance of apoptotic cells during embryonic development. Cell 128:931–946
Zhou F, Yang Y, Xing D (2011) Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL play important roles in the crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis. FEBS J 278:403–413
Maiuri MC, Le Toumelin G, Criollo A et al (2007) Functional and physical interaction between Bcl-X(L) and a BH3-like domain in Beclin-1. EMBO J 26:2527–2539
Pattingre S, Tassa A, Qu X et al (2005) Bcl-2 antiapoptotic proteins inhibit Beclin 1-dependent autophagy. Cell 122:927–939
Wei Y, Pattingre S, Sinha S, Bassik M, Levine B (2008) JNK1-mediated phosphorylation of Bcl-2 regulates starvation-induced autophagy. Mol Cell 30:678–688
Wei Y, Sinha S, Levine B (2008) Dual role of JNK1-mediated phosphorylation of Bcl-2 in autophagy and apoptosis regulation. Autophagy 4:949–951
Maiuri MC, Criollo A, Tasdemir E et al (2007) BH3-only proteins and BH3 mimetics induce autophagy by competitively disrupting the interaction between Beclin 1 and Bcl-2/Bcl-X(L). Autophagy 3:374–376
Feng W, Huang S, Wu H, Zhang M (2007) Molecular basis of Bcl-xL’s target recognition versatility revealed by the structure of Bcl-xL in complex with the BH3 domain of Beclin-1. J Mol Biol 372:223–235
Zalckvar E, Berissi H, Mizrachy L et al (2009) DAP-kinase-mediated phosphorylation on the BH3 domain of beclin 1 promotes dissociation of beclin 1 from Bcl-XL and induction of autophagy. EMBO Rep 10:285–292
Bovellan M, Fritzsche M, Stevens C, Charras G (2010) Death-associated protein kinase (DAPK) and signal transduction: blebbing in programmed cell death. FEBS J 277:58–65
Yousefi S, Perozzo R, Schmid I et al (2006) Calpain-mediated cleavage of Atg5 switches autophagy to apoptosis. Nat Cell Biol 8:1124–1132
Bhutia SK, Dash R, Das SK et al (2010) Mechanism of autophagy to apoptosis switch triggered in prostate cancer cells by antitumor cytokine melanoma differentiation-associated gene 7/interleukin-24. Cancer Res 70:3667–3676
Lee JS, Li Q, Lee JY et al (2009) FLIP-mediated autophagy regulation in cell death control. Nat Cell Biol 11:1355–1362
Luo S, Rubinsztein DC (2010) Apoptosis blocks Beclin 1-dependent autophagosome synthesis: an effect rescued by Bcl-xL. Cell Death Differ 17:268–277
Cho DH, Jo YK, Hwang JJ, Lee YM, Roh SA, Kim JC (2009) Caspase-mediated cleavage of ATG6/Beclin-1 links apoptosis to autophagy in HeLa cells. Cancer Lett 274:95–100
Wirawan E, Vande Walle L, Kersse K et al (2010) Caspase-mediated cleavage of Beclin-1 inactivates Beclin-1-induced autophagy and enhances apoptosis by promoting the release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria. Cell Death Dis 1:e18. doi:10.1038/cddis.2009.16
Djavaheri-Mergny M, Maiuri MC, Kroemer G (2010) Cross talk between apoptosis and autophagy by caspase-mediated cleavage of Beclin 1. Oncogene 29:1717–1719
Niu TK, Cheng Y, Ren X, Yang JM (2010) Interaction of Beclin 1 with survivin regulates sensitivity of human glioma cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. FEBS Lett 584:3519–3524
Moscat J, Diaz-Meco MT (2009) p62 at the crossroads of autophagy, apoptosis, and cancer. Cell 137:1001–1004
Pankiv S, Clausen TH, Lamark T et al (2007) p62/SQSTM1 binds directly to Atg8/LC3 to facilitate degradation of ubiquitinated protein aggregates by autophagy. J Biol Chem 282:24131–24145
Nezis IP, Simonsen A, Sagona AP et al (2008) Ref(2)P, the Drosophila melanogaster homologue of mammalian p62, is required for the formation of protein aggregates in adult brain. J Cell Biol 180:1065–1071
Kirkin V, Lamark T, Sou YS et al (2009) A role for NBR1 in autophagosomal degradation of ubiquitinated substrates. Mol Cell 33:505–516
Mathew R, Karp CM, Beaudoin B et al (2009) Autophagy suppresses tumorigenesis through elimination of p62. Cell 137:1062–1075
Gao Z, Gammoh N, Wong PM, Erdjument-Bromage H, Tempst P, Jiang X (2010) Processing of autophagic protein LC3 by the 20S proteasome. Autophagy 6:126–137
Jin Z, Li Y, Pitti R et al (2009) Cullin3-based polyubiquitination and p62-dependent aggregation of caspase-8 mediate extrinsic apoptosis signalling. Cell 137:721–735
Crighton D, Wilkinson S, O’Prey J et al (2006) DRAM, a p53-induced modulator of autophagy, is critical for apoptosis. Cell 126:121–134
Tasdemir E, Maiuri MC, Galluzzi L et al (2008) Regulation of autophagy by cytoplasmic p53. Nat Cell Biol 10:676–687
Galluzzi L, Morselli E, Kepp O, Vitale I, Pinti M, Kroemer G (2011) Mitochondrial liaisons of p53. Antioxid Redox Signal. doi:10.1089/ars.2010.3504
Scherz-Shouval R, Weidberg H, Gonen C, Wilder S, Elazar Z, Oren M (2010) p53-dependent regulation of autophagy protein LC3 supports cancer cell survival under prolonged starvation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:18511–18516
Bialik S, Zalckvar E, Ber Y, Rubinstein AD, Kimchi A (2010) Systems biology analysis of programmed cell death. Trends Biochem Sci 35:556–564
Huett A, Goel G, Xavier RJ (2010) A systems biology viewpoint on autophagy in health and disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 26:302–309
Zalckvar E, Bialik S, Kimchi A (2010) The road not taken: a systems level strategy for analyzing the cell death network. Autophagy 6:813–815
Zalckvar E, Yosef N, Reef S et al (2010) A systems level strategy for analyzing the cell death network: implication in exploring the apoptosis/autophagy connection. Cell Death Differ 17:1244–1253
Liang XH, Jackson S, Seaman M et al (1999) Induction of autophagy and inhibition of tumorigenesis by beclin 1. Nature 402:672–676
Qu X, Yu J, Bhagat G et al (2003) Promotion of tumorigenesis by heterozygous disruption of the beclin 1 autophagy gene. J Clin Invest 112:1809–1820
Yue Z, Jin S, Yang C, Levine AJ, Heintz N (2003) Beclin 1, an autophagy gene essential for early embryonic development, is a haploinsufficient tumor suppressor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:15077–15082
Eisenberg-Lerner A, Kimchi A (2009) The paradox of autophagy and its implication in cancer etiology and therapy. Apoptosis 14:376–391
Iqbal J, Kucuk C, Deleeuw RJ et al (2009) Genomic analyses reveal global functional alterations that promote tumor growth and novel tumor suppressor genes in natural killer-cell malignancies. Leukemia 23:1139–1151
Ionov Y, Nowak N, Perucho M, Markowitz S, Cowell JK (2004) Manipulation of nonsense mediated decay identifies gene mutations in colon cancer cells with microsatellite instability. Oncogene 23:639–645
Kim MS, Jeong EG, Ahn CH, Kim SS, Lee SH, Yoo NJ (2008) Frameshift mutation of UVRAG, an autophagy-related gene, in gastric carcinomas with microsatellite instability. Hum Pathol 39:1059–1063
Marino G, Salvador-Montoliu N, Fueyo A, Knecht E, Mizushima N, Lopez-Otin C (2007) Tissue-specific autophagy alterations and increased tumorigenesis in mice deficient in Atg4C/autophagin-3. J Biol Chem 282:18573–18583
Mathew R, Kongara S, Beaudoin B et al (2007) Autophagy suppresses tumor progression by limiting chromosomal instability. Genes Dev 21:1367–1381
Collado M, Serrano M (2006) The power and the promise of oncogene-induced senescence markers. Nat Rev Cancer 6:472–476
Steeves MA, Dorsey FC, Cleveland JL (2010) Targeting the autophagy pathway for cancer chemoprevention. Curr Opin Cell Biol 22:218–225
Young AR, Narita M, Ferreira M et al (2009) Autophagy mediates the mitotic senescence transition. Genes Dev 23:798–803
Ryan KM (2011) p53 and autophagy in cancer: guardian of the genome meets guardian of the proteome. Eur J Cancer 47:44–50
Moreau K, Luo S, Rubinsztein DC (2010) Cytoprotective roles for autophagy. Curr Opin Cell Biol 22:206–211
White E, Karp C, Strohecker AM, Guo Y, Mathew R (2010) Role of autophagy in suppression of inflammation and cancer. Curr Opin Cell Biol 22:212–217
Levine B, Kroemer G (2009) Autophagy in aging, disease and death: the true identity of a cell death impostor. Cell Death Differ 16:1–2
Kenific CM, Thorburn A, Debnath J (2010) Autophagy and metastasis: another double-edged sword. Curr Opin Cell Biol 22:241–245
Chen S, Rehman SK, Zhang W, Wen A, Yao L, Zhang J (2010) Autophagy is a therapeutic target in anticancer drug resistance. Biochim Biophys Acta 1806:220–229
DeNardo DG, Johansson M, Coussens LM (2008) Immune cells as mediators of solid tumor metastasis. Cancer Metastasis Rev 27:11–18
DeNardo DG, Barreto JB, Andreu P et al (2009) CD4(+) T cells regulate pulmonary metastasis of mammary carcinomas by enhancing protumor properties of macrophages. Cancer Cell 16:91–102
Boya P, Gonzalez-Polo RA, Casares N et al (2005) Inhibition of macroautophagy triggers apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 25:1025–1040
Shi Y, Frankel A, Radvanyi LG, Penn LZ, Miller RG, Mills GB (1995) Rapamycin enhances apoptosis and increases sensitivity to cisplatin in vitro. Cancer Res 55:1982–1988
Werzowa J, Koehrer S, Strommer S et al (2011) Vertical inhibition of the mTORC1/mTORC2/PI3 K pathway shows synergistic effects against melanoma in vitro and in vivo. J Invest Dermatol 131:495–503
Gonzalez-Polo RA, Niso-Santano M, Ortiz-Ortiz MA et al (2007) Inhibition of paraquat-induced autophagy accelerates the apoptotic cell death in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Toxicol Sci 97:448–458
Carew JS, Medina EC, Esquivel JA 2nd et al (2010) Autophagy inhibition enhances vorinostat-induced apoptosis via ubiquitinated protein accumulation. J Cell Mol Med 14:2448–2459
Kanematsu S, Uehara N, Miki H et al (2010) Autophagy inhibition enhances sulforaphane-induced apoptosis in human breast cancer cells. Anticancer Res 30:3381–3390
Xie BS, Zhao HC, Yao SK et al (2011) Autophagy inhibition enhances etoposide-induced cell death in human hepatoma G2 cells. Int J Mol Med 27:599–606
Turcotte S, Giaccia AJ (2010) Targeting cancer cells through autophagy for anticancer therapy. Curr Opin Cell Biol 22:246–251
Liu JJ, Lin M, Yu JY, Liu B, Bao JK (2011) Targeting apoptotic and autophagic pathways for cancer therapeutics. Cancer Lett 300:105–114
Scarlatti F, Granata R, Meijer AJ, Codogno P (2009) Does autophagy have a license to kill mammalian cells? Cell Death Differ 16:12–20
Zhivotovsky B, Orrenius S (2010) Cell cycle and cell death in disease: past, present and future. J Intern Med 268:395–409
Shen HM, Codogno P (2011) Autophagic cell death: Loch Ness monster or endangered species? Autophagy 7(5):1–9
Parks M, Tillhon M, Donà F, Prosperi E, Scovassi AI (2011) 2-Methoxyestradiol: new perspectives in colon carcinoma treatment. Mol Cell Endocrinol 331:119–128
Gougeon ML, Piacentini M (2009) New insights on the role of apoptosis and autophagy in HIV pathogenesis. Apoptosis 14:501–508
Orvedahl A, Levine B (2009) Eating the enemy within: autophagy in infectious diseases. Cell Death Differ 16:57–69
Marino G, Madeo F, Kroemer G (2010) Autophagy for tissue homeostasis and neuroprotection. Curr Opin Cell Biol 23:1–9
Nishida K, Kyoi S, Yamaguchi O, Sadoshima J, Otsu K (2009) The role of autophagy in the heart. Cell Death Differ 16:31–38
Vellai T (2009) Autophagy genes and ageing. Cell Death Differ 16:94–102
Madeo F, Tavernarakis N, Kroemer G (2010) Can autophagy promote longevity? Nat Cell Biol 12:842–846
Grumati P, Coletto L, Sabatelli P et al (2010) Autophagy is defective in collagen VI muscular dystrophies, and its reactivation rescues myofiber degeneration. Nat Med 16:1313–1320
Ravikumar B, Sarkar S, Davies JE et al (2010) Regulation of mammalian autophagy in physiology and pathophysiology. Physiol Rev 90:1383–1435
Klionsky DJ, Abeliovich H, Agostinis P et al (2008) Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy in higher eukaryotes. Autophagy 4:151–175
Zakeri Z, Melendez A, Lockshin RA (2008) Detection of autophagy in cell death. Methods Enzymol 442:289–306
Galluzzi L, Aaronson SA, Abrams J et al (2009) Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring cell death in higher eukaryotes. Cell Death Differ 16:1093–1107
Kroemer G, Galluzzi L, Vandenabeele P et al (2009) Classification of cell death: recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death 2009. Cell Death Differ 16:3–11
Barth S, Glick D, Macleod KF (2010) Autophagy: assays and artifacts. J Pathol 221:117–124
Mizushima N, Yoshimori T, Levine B (2010) Methods in mammalian autophagy research. Cell 140:313–326
Salazar M, Hernandez-Tiedra S, Torres S, Lorente M, Guzman M, Velasco G (2011) Detecting autophagy in response to ER stress signals in cancer. Methods Enzymol 489:297–317
Balaburski GM, Hontz RD, Murphy ME (2010) p53 and ARF: unexpected players in autophagy. Trends Cell Biol 20:363–369
Levine B, Mizushima N, Virgin HW (2011) Autophagy in immunity and inflammation. Nature 469:323–335
Rubinsztein DC (2010) Autophagy: where next? EMBO Rep 11:3
Acknowledgments
This review is not intended to be comprehensive. We apologize to those colleagues whose work was not mentioned. The work in AIS laboratory is granted by Regione Lombardia, Italy (Project Plant Cell) and Italian Ministry of Health (Project SEpiAs); AT laboratory is financed by Retina France. GV is supported by an Investigator Fellowship from Collegio Ghislieri, Pavia, Italy.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Giansanti, V., Torriglia, A. & Scovassi, A.I. Conversation between apoptosis and autophagy: “Is it your turn or mine?”. Apoptosis 16, 321–333 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10495-011-0589-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10495-011-0589-x