Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cryptosporidiosis Risk in New Zealand Children Under 5 Years Old is Greatest in Areas with High Dairy Cattle Densities

  • Original Contribution
  • Published:
EcoHealth Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The public health risks associated with dairy farming intensification are an emerging concern. We examine the association between dairy cattle density and cryptosporidiosis risk in children <5 years old in New Zealand from 1997 to 2008, a period of rapid intensification of the dairy industry. Multi-level Poisson regression was used to model reported cryptosporidiosis (N = 3869 cases) incidence in relation to dairy cattle densities across urban and rural areas separately, after controlling for microbiological quality of public drinking water supplies and neighbourhood socio-economic factors using the Census Area Unit of residence. Within urban areas, the risk of cryptosporidiosis in children less than 5 years old was significantly, positively associated with medium and high dairy cattle density IRR 1.3 (95% CI 1.2, 1.5) and 1.5 (95% CI 1.2, 1.9) respectively, when compared to areas with no dairy cattle. Within rural areas, the incidence risk of cryptosporidiosis in children less than 5 years old were significantly, positively associated with medium and high dairy cattle density: IRR 1.7 (95% CI 1.3, 2.3) and 2.0 (95% CI 1.5, 2.8) respectively, when compared to areas with no dairy cattle. These results have public health implications for children living on and in proximity to intensively stocked dairy cattle farms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Figure 1
Figure 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abeywardena H, Jex AR, et al. (2012) Genetic characterisation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from dairy calves: Discovery of species/genotypes consistent with those found in humans. Infection, Genetics and Evolution 12(8): 1984–1993

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mawly Al J, Grinberg A, et al. (2015) Cross sectional study of prevalence, genetic diversity and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium parvum cycling in New Zealand dairy farms. Parasites and Vectors 8(1): 240

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arshad MM, Wilkins MJ, et al (2007) A registry-based study on the association between human salmonellosis and routinely collected parameters in Michigan, 1995-2001. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 4(1): 16–25

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker MG, Sneyd E, et al. (2007) Is the major increase in notified campylobacteriosis in New Zealand real? Epidemiology and Infection 135(01): 163–170

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouwman L, Goldewijk KK, et al. (2011) Exploring global changes in nitrogen and phosphorus cycles in agriculture induced by livestock production over the 1900–2050 period. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.1012878108

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton E, Hales S, et al. (2010) The impact of climate variability and change on cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis rates in New Zealand. Journal of Water and Health 8(3): 561–571

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brock A (2011) The effect of climate variation on infectious diseases in humans in New Zealand. Masters in Veterinary Studies, Massey University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnet JB, Penny C, et al. (2014) Spatial and temporal distribution of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in a drinking water resource: Implications for monitoring and risk assessment. Science of the Total Environment 472: 1023–1035

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Close M, Dann R, et al. (2008) Microbial groundwater quality and its health implications for a border-strip irrigated dairy farm catchment, South Island, New Zealand. Journal of Water and Health 6(1): 83–98

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Close M, Noonan M, et al. (2010) Microbial Transport from Dairying under Two Spray-Irrigation Systems in Canterbury, New Zealand. Journal of Environmental Quality 39(3): 824–833

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crump JA, Murdoch DR, et al. (2001) Emerging infectious diseases in an island ecosystem: the New Zealand perspective. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7(5): 767–772

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Davies-Colley R, Lydiard E, et al. (2008) Stormflow-dominated loads of faecal pollution from an intensively dairy-farmed catchment. Water Science and Technology 57(10): 1519–1523

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies-Colley RJ, Nagels JW, et al. (2004) Water quality impact of a dairy cow herd crossing a stream. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 38(4): 569–576

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derraik JGB, Slaney D (2007) Anthropogenic environmental change, mosquito-borne diseases and human health in New Zealand. Ecohealth 4(1): 72–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan C, Jones K, et al. (1996) Health-related behaviour in context: a multilevel modelling approach. Social Science & Medicine 42(6): 817–830

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duncanson M, Russell N, et al. (2000) Rates of notified cryptosporidiosis and quality of drinking water supplies in Aotearoa, New Zealand. Water Research 34(15): 3804–3812

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grinberg A, Pomroy WE, et al. (2011) Retrospective cohort study of an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis caused by a rare Cryptosporidium parvum subgenotype. Epidemiology & Infection 139(Special Issue 10): 1542–1550

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter PR, Thompson RCA (2005) The zoonotic transmission of Giardia and Cryptosporidium. International Journal for Parasitology 35(11–12): 1181–1190

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jagai J, Griffiths J, et al. (2010) Patterns of protozoan infections: Spatiotemporal associations with cattle density. EcoHealth 7(1): 33–46

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones BA, Grace D, et al. (2013) Zoonosis emergence linked to agricultural intensification and environmental change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110(21): 8399–8404

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones KE, Patel NG, et al. (2008) Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 451(7181): 990–993

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kotloff KL, Blackwelder WC, et al. (2012) The Global Enteric Multicenter Study (GEMS) of diarrheal disease in infants and young children in developing countries: epidemiologic and clinical methods of the case/control study. Clin Infect Dis 55 Suppl 4: S232–245

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lal A (2014) Evaluating the Environmental and Social Determinants of Enteric Disease in New Zealand. Doctor of Philosophy, Univesity of Otago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Learmonth J, Ionas G, et al. (2001) Seasonal shift in Cryptosporidium parvum transmission cycles in New Zealand. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 48(Suppl): 34S–35S

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Learmonth J, Ionas G, et al. (2003) Identification and genetic characterisation of Giardia and Cryptosporidium strains in humans and dairy cattle in the Waikato Region of New Zealand. Water Science and Technology 47(3): 21–26

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacLeod CJ, Moller H (2006) Intensification and diversification of New Zealand agriculture since 1960: An evaluation of current indicators of land use change. Agriculture, Ecosystems &amp; Environment 115(1–4): 201–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy ND, Gillespie IA, et al. (2012) Molecular epidemiology of human Campylobacter jejuni shows association between seasonal and international patterns of disease. Epidemiology and Infection 140(12): 2247–2255

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Miller WA, Lewis DJ, et al. (2007) Climate and on-farm risk factors associated with giardia duodenalis cysts in storm runoff from california coastal dairiesv. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73(21): 6972–6979

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moore D, Black M, et al. (2010) Cost benefit analysis of raising the quality of New Zealand networked drinking water., CH2M Beca Limited: 103

  • Murray KA, Allen T, et al. (2016) Emerging Viral Zoonoses from Wildlife Associated with Animal-Based Food Systems: Risks and Opportunities. In: Food Safety Risks from Wildlife, New York: Springer, pp 31–57

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Odoi A, Martin S, et al. (2004) Investigation of clusters of giardiasis using GIS and a spatial scan statistic. International Journal of Health Geographics 3(1): 1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollock KGJ, Ternent HE, et al. (2009) Spatial and temporal epidemiology of sporadic human cryptosporidiosis in Scotland. Zoonoses and Public Health 57(7–8): 487–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmond C, Crampton P, et al. (2006) NZDep2006 Index of deprivation user’s manual- research report, Wellington School of Medicine and Health Sciences

  • Sarkar R, Kattula D, et al. (2014) Risk factors for cryptosporidiosis among children in a semi urban slum in Southern India: a nested case-control study. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 91(6): 1128–1137

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Snel SJ, Baker MG, et al. (2009) A tale of two parasites: the comparative epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis. Epidemiology and Infection 137(11): 1641–1650

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snel SJ, MG Baker, et al. (2009) The epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in New Zealand. New Zealand Medical Journal 122: 1290

    Google Scholar 

  • StataCorp (2013) Stata Statistical Software: Release 13, College Station, Texas: StataCorp LP

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics New Zealand (2012) Agricultural Production Statistics: June 2012 (final)—Media Release. Retrieved 30 July, 2013, from http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/industry_sectors/agriculture-horticulture-forestry/AgriculturalProduction_final_MRJun12final.aspx

  • Statistics New Zealand (2012) New Zealand: An Urban/Rural Profile Update. Retrieved 30 July, 2013, from http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/people_and_communities/Geographic-areas/urban-rural-profile-update.aspx

  • Statistics New Zealand, A. (2010) Historical Population Estimates. Wellington, Government of New Zealand

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefanogiannis N, McLean M, et al. (2001) Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis linked with a farm event. New Zealand Medical Journal 114(1144): 519–521

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor LH, Latham SM, et al. (2001) Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 356(1411): 983–989

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thorburn D (2011) Ruminant density, Verocytotoxigenic Escherichia Coli and cryptosporidiosis in New Zealand: Descriptive and ecological analyses, Dunedin: University of Otago

    Google Scholar 

  • Wendt A, Kreienbrock L, et al. (2016) Joint use of Disparate Data for the Surveillance of Zoonoses: A Feasibility Study for a One Health Approach in Germany. Zoonoses and Public Health

  • Yoder JS, Wallace RM, et al. (2012) Cryptosporidiosis surveillance—United States, 2009–2010. Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Surveillance summaries (Washington, D.C.: 2002) 61(5): 1–12

  • Zambrano LD, Levy K, et al. (2014) Human diarrhea infections associated with domestic animal husbandry: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 108(6): 313–325

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zinsstag J, Roth F, et al. (2005) A model of animal–human brucellosis transmission in Mongolia. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 69(1): 77–95

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This study was possible through A Lal’s salaried position at the Australian National University.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Research School of Population Health, The Australian National University, Building 62, Acton, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia

    Aparna Lal & Timothy Dobbins

  2. Department of Health Service Research and Policy, Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, 63 Eggleston Rd, Canberra, 2601, Australia

    Nasser Bagheri

  3. Department of Public Health, University of Otago School of Medical and Health Sciences, PO Box 7343, Wellington South, 6242, New Zealand

    Michael G. Baker & Simon Hales

  4. mEpiLab, Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand

    Nigel P. French

Authors
  1. Aparna Lal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Timothy Dobbins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nasser Bagheri
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael G. Baker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Nigel P. French
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Simon Hales
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aparna Lal.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Author Simon Hales is a review editor for the journal.

Research Involving Human Rights

The authors assert that all the procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOC 31 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lal, A., Dobbins, T., Bagheri, N. et al. Cryptosporidiosis Risk in New Zealand Children Under 5 Years Old is Greatest in Areas with High Dairy Cattle Densities. EcoHealth 13, 652–660 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-016-1187-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-016-1187-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation