Abstract
We reviewed information on nest sanitation (nest cleaning) by passerine birds because the act of cleaning nests is thought to be associated with egg rejection by hosts of brood parasites, and yet there has been no synthesis of the literature on nest sanitation. In the first part of the review, we summarized information on nest sanitation. We found that birds remove a variety of objects from nests such as egg shells, fecal sacs, pieces of vegetation, invertebrate parasites, dead chicks, uneaten food, and occasionally unhatched eggs. Fecal sac removal, the most commonly considered type of nest sanitation behavior, is not divided equally between the sexes across species; females remove more fecal sacs than males. In addition, larger species tend to carry fecal sacs farther than smaller species. In the second part of the review, we discuss the importance of nest sanitation in the evolution of egg rejection behavior of brood parasite hosts. Recent studies involving the experimental addition of non-egg-shaped objects to nests or to the vicinity of nests suggest that nest sanitation plays a role in host rejection of avian brood parasitism. Most objects added to nests prior to hatching (usually hard) and after hatching (usually soft) were rejected. In a logistic regression model, shape and size were the significant factors in eliciting rejection for all hosts that received experimental non-egg objects added to their nests prior to hatching. Nest sanitation may be an exaptation for antiparasite defences and thus plays an important role in the host-parasite arms race.
Zusammenfassung
Wir überprüften Daten zur Nesthygiene (Nestsäuberung) bei Singvögeln. Es wird angenommen, dass Nestsäuberung assoziiert ist mit der Zurückweisung von Eiern durch Wirte von Brutparasiten. Bislang gibt es jedoch keine Synthese der Literatur zur Nesthygiene. Daher fassen wir im ersten Teil der Arbeit die vorhandenen Informationen zur Nesthygiene zusammen. Wir fanden heraus, dass Vögel eine Vielzahl von Objekten aus ihren Nestern entfernen, beispielsweise Eierschalen, Kotpakete, Vegetationsteile, wirbellose Parasiten, tote Küken, Futterreste und gelegentlich nicht geschlüpfte Eier. Die Beseitigung von Kotpaketen, das am meisten beobachtete Nesthygieneverhalten, wird von den Geschlechtern nicht gleichverteilt durchgeführt. Weibchen entfernen mehr Kot aus den Nestern als Männchen. Darüber hinaus tendieren größere Arten dazu, Kotreste weiter weg zu bringen als kleinere Arten. Im zweiten Teil der Studie diskutieren wir die Bedeutung von Nesthygiene in der Evolution des Verhaltens der Gelegeablehnung durch Wirtsarten für Brutparasiten. Aktuelle Studien, bei denen experimentell nicht eierschalenförmige Objekte in die Nester oder in deren Nähe gelegt worden sind, deuten an, dass für die Wirtsarten Nesthygiene eine Rolle spielt bei der Vermeidung von Brutparasitismus durch andere Vogelarten. Die meisten Objekte, die vor (normalerweise harte) und nach dem Schlupf (normalerweise weiche) den Nestern hinzugefügt wurden, werden entfernt. In einem logistischen Regressionsmodell sind Form und Größe die entscheidenden Faktoren für die Zurückweisung der Eier durch die Wirtsvögel, deren Nestern vor dem Schlupf nicht-eierförmige Objekte hinzugefügt worden sind. Nesthygiene könnte eine besondere Anpassung (Exaptation) für Parasitenabwehr darstellen und spielt daher eine bedeutende Rolle in der Beziehung zwischen Wirt und Parasit.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alvarez H (1975) The social system of the Green Jay in Colombia. Living Bird 14:5–44
Alvarez F, Arias de Reyna L, Segura M (1976) Experimental brood parasitism of the magpie (Pica pica). Anim Behav 24:907–916
Ammon EM (1995) Lincoln’s Sparrow (Melospiza lincolnii). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.191; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/191
Ankney CD, Scott DM (1980) Changes in nutrient reserves and diet of breeding Brown-headed Cowbirds. Auk 97:684–696
Antonov A, Stokke BG, Ranke PS, Fossøy F, Moksnes A, Røskaft E (2010) Absence of egg discrimination in a suitable cuckoo Cuculus canorus host breeding away from trees. J Avian Biol 41:501–504
Arcese P, Smith JNM, Hatch MI (1996) Nest predation by cowbirds and its consequences for passerine demography. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:4608–4611
Arnold TW (1992) The adaptive significance of eggshell removal by nesting birds: testing the egg-capping hypothesis. Condor 95:547–548
Bańbura J, Perret P, Blondel J, Sauvages A, Galan MJ, Lambrechts MM (2001) Sex differences in parental care in a Corsican Blue Tit Parus caeruleus population. Ardea 89:517–526
Banko PC, Ball DL, Banko WE (2002) Hawaiian Crow (Corvus hawaiiensis). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.648; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/648
Barker FK, Barrowclough GF, Groth JG (2002) A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data. Proc R Soc Lond B 269:295–308
Bártol I, Moskát C, Karcza Z, Kisbenedek T (2003) Great Reed Warblers bury artificial objects, not only cuckoo eggs. Acta Zool Hung 49:111–114
Bignal EM (1998) The dynamics of parental care in choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax). J Ornithol 139:297–305
Blair RH, Tucker BW (1941) Nest sanitation. Br Birds 34:206–215, 226–235, 250–255
Brooke M de L (1981) How an adult wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe) uses its territory when feeding nestlings. J Anim Ecol 50:683–696
Brooker MG, Brooker LC (1991) Eggshell strength in cuckoos and cowbirds. Ibis 133:406–413
Calder WA (1968) Nest sanitation: a possible factor in the water economy of the roadrunner. Condor 70:279
Casas-Crivillé A, Valera F (2005) The European Bee-eater (Merops apiaster) as an ecosystem engineer in arid environments. J Arid Environ 60:227–238
Chisholm AH (1952) Bird-insect nesting associations in Australia. Ibis 94:395–405
Chislett R (1933) Northward Ho! For birds. Country Life, London
Christie P, Richner H, Oppliger A (1996) Of Great Tits and fleas: sleep baby sleep. Anim Behav 52:1087–1092
Cliburn JW (1978) Disposal of fecal sacs in water by Common Grackles. Miss Kite 8:12
Conder PJ (1948) The breeding biology and behaviour of the Continental Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis carduelis. Ibis 90:493–525
Davies NB (2000) Cuckoos, cowbirds and other cheats. Poyser, London
Davies NB, Brooke M (1998) Cuckoos versus hosts: experimental evidence for coevolution. In: Rothstein SI, Robinson SK (eds) Parasitic birds and their hosts: studies in coevolution. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 236–254
Davis CM (1978) A nesting study of the Brown Creeper. Living Bird 17:237–263
Deeming DC (2002) Patterns and significance of egg turning. In: Deeming DC (ed) Avian incubation: behaviour, environment and evolution. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 161–178
Derrickson KC, Warkentin IG (1991) The role of egg-capping in the evolution of eggshell removal. Condor 93:757–759
Dhondt AA, Eyckerman R (1978) Tits sitting on empty nests. Br Birds 71:600
Eckerle KP, Thompson CF (2001) Yellow-breasted Chat (Icteria virens). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.575; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/575
Erickson MM (1938) Territory, annual cycle, and numbers in a population of Wren-Tits (Chamaea fasciata). Univ Calif Publ Zool 42:247–334
Esten SR (1925) A comparative study of the nest life of the towhee, meadow lark and Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Proc Indiana Acad Sci 34:397–401
Fautin RW (1941) Development of nestling Yellow-headed Blackbirds. Auk 58:215–232
Felsenstein J (1989) PHYLIP—phylogeny inference package (version 3.2). Cladistics 5:164–166
Gabrielson IN (1912) A study of the home life of the Brown Thrasher, Toxostoma rufum (Linn.). Wilson Bull 24:64–94
Gabrielson IN (1913) Nest life of the catbird. Wilson Bull 25:166–187
Gill BJ (1983) Breeding habits of the Grey Warbler (Gerygone igata). Notornis 30:137–165
Gill FB (1994) Ornithology, 2nd edn. Freeman, New York
Gill F, Wright M (2006) Birds of the world—recommended English names. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Glück E (1988) Why do parent birds swallow the feces of their nestlings? Experientia 44:537–539
Goodey W, Lill A (1993) Parental care by the Willie Wagtail in Southern Victoria. Emu 93:180–187
Gowaty PA, Plissner JH (1997) Breeding dispersal of eastern bluebirds depends on nesting success but not on removal of old nests: an experimental study. J Field Ornithol 68:323–330
Greene E, Muehter VR, Davison W (1996) Lazuli Bunting (Passerina amoena). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.232; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/232
Grinnell J, Storer TI (1924) Animal Life in the Yosemite. Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California Press, Berkeley
Guigueno MF, Sealy SG (2009) Nest sanitation plays a role in egg burial by Yellow Warblers. Ethology 115:247–256
Guigueno MF, Sealy SG (2010) Clutch abandonment in parasitized Yellow Warblers: egg burial or nest desertion? Condor 112:399–406
Haldeman DW (1931) A study of the eastern Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia melodia). Auk 48:385–406
Halkin SL, Linville SU (1999) Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.440; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/440
Hartshorne JM (1962) Behavior of the Eastern Bluebird at the nest. Living Bird 1:131–149
Hauber ME (2003) Egg-capping is a cost paid by hosts of interspecific brood parasites. Auk 120:860–865
Hendricks P (1987) Foraging patterns of Water Pipits (Anthus spinoletta). Can J Zool 65:1522–1529
Herrick FH (1900) Care of nest and young. Auk 17:100–103
Hindwood KA (1951) Bird/insect relationships: with a particular reference to a beetle (Platydema pascoei) inhabiting the nests of finches. Emu 50:179–183
Höhn EO (1993) Reaction of certain birds to the covering of their eggs. Can Field-Nat 107:224–225
Honza M, Moskát C (2008) Egg rejection behaviour in the Great Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus): the effect of egg type. J Ethol 26:389–395
Honza M, Polaciková L (2008) Experimental reduction of ultraviolet wavelengths reflected from parasitic eggs affects rejection behaviour in the Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla. J Exp Biol 211:2519–2523
Hoover JP (2003) Experiments and observations of Prothonotary Warblers indicate a lack of adaptive responses to brood parasitism. Anim Behav 65:935–944
Hoy G, Ottow J (1964) Biological and oological studies of the molothrine cowbirds (Icteridae) of Argentina. Auk 81:186–203
Hurd PL, Weatherhead PJ, McRae SB (1991) Parental consumption of nestling feces: good food or sound economics? Behav Ecol 2:69–76
Hurtrez-Boussès S (2000) Effects of ectoparasites of young on parents’ behaviour in a Mediterranean population of Blue Tits. J Avian Biol 31:266–269
Islam MA (1994) Breeding habits of the Nilgiri Laughing Thrush Garrulax cachinnans (Jerdon). J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 91:16–28
Islam MA (1995) Breeding behaviour of the Whitebreasted Laughing Thrush Garrulax jerdoni Blyth (Aves: Muscicapidae). Bangladesh J Zool 23:125–132
Johnson LS, Barclay RMR (1996) Effects of supplemental calcium on the reproductive output of a small passerine bird, the House Wren (Troglodytes aedon). Can J Zool 74:278–283
Johnson K, Peer BD (2001) Great-tailed Grackle (Quiscalus mexicanus). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.576; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/576
Johnson RE, Hendricks P, Pattie DL, Hunter KB (2000) Brown-capped Rosy-Finch (Leucosticte australis). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.536; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/536
Jones PJ (1976) The utilization of calcareous grit by laying Quelea quelea. Ibis 118:575–576
Kaiser GW (2007) Inner bird. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver
Kemal RE, Rothstein SI (1988) Mechanisms of avian egg recognition: adaptive responses to eggs with broken shells. Anim Behav 36:175–183
Kepler CB, Pratt TK, Ecton AM, Engilis A Jr, Fluetsch KM (1996) Nesting behavior of the Poo-uli. Wilson Bull 108:620–638
Khacher L (1978) Fecal feeding in the Whiteheaded Babbler, Turdoides affinis (Jerdon)—a rejoinder. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 75:490–491
Kirkpatrick PA (1984) Breeding Firecrests in Haslemere in 1983. Surrey Bird Rep 31:44–48
Kluijver HN (1950) Daily routines of the Great Tit, Parus major L. Ardea 38:99–135
Kozlowski J (1981) Changes in fecal-sac composition in postembryonic development in the Great Tit (Parus major L.). Bull Acad Pol Sci 28:693–698
Lang JD, Straight CA, Gowaty PA (2002) Observations of fecal sac disposal by Eastern Bluebirds. Condor 104:205–207
Lessells CM, Oddie KR, Matemen AC (1998) Parental behaviour is unrelated to experimentally manipulated Great Tit brood sex ratio. Anim Behav 56:385–393
Ley AJ, Williams MB (1998) Nesting of the Regent Honeyeater Xanthomyza phrygia near Armidale, New South Wales. Aust Bird Watch 17:328–336
Lombardo MP (1991) Sexual differences in parental effort during the nestling period in Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor). Auk 108:393–404
Long CA, Long CF, Knops J, Matulionis DH (1965) Reproduction in the Dickcissel. Wilson Bull 77:251–256
Lorenz KZ (1937) The companion in the bird’s world. Auk 54:245–273
Lorenzana JC, Sealy SG (1999) A meta-analysis of the impact of parasitism by the Brown-headed Cowbird on its hosts. Stud Avian Biol 18:241–253
Maron JL, Estes JA, Croll DA, Danner EM, Elmendorf SC, Buckelew SL (2006) An introduced predator alters Aleutian island plant communities by thwarting nutrient subsidies. Ecol Monogr 76:3–24
Mazgajski TD, Kedra AH, Beal KG (2004) The pattern of nest-site cleaning by European Starlings Sturnus vulgaris. Ibis 146:175–177
McGowan KJ (1995) A test of whether economy or nutrition determines fecal sac ingestion in nesting corvids. Condor 97:50–56
McKay JE, Murphy MT, Smith SB, Richardson JK (2009) Fecal-sac ingestion by Spotted Towhees. Condor 111:503–510
McMaster DG, Sealy SG (1998) Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) accept prematurely hatching Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater). Bird Behav 12:67–70
Moldenhauer RR, Regelski DJ (1996) Northern Parula (Parula americana). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.215; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/215
Morel G, Morel M-Y, Bourlière F (1957) The Blackfaced Weaver Bird or Dioch in West Africa: an ecological study. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 54:811–825
Morton ML (1979) Fecal sac ingestion in the mountain White-crowned Sparrow. Condor 81:72–77
Moskát C, Hauber ME (2007) Conflict between egg recognition and egg rejection decisions in Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) hosts. Anim Cogn 10:377–386
Moskát C, Székely T, Kisbenedek T, Karcza Z, Bártol I (2003) The importance of nest cleaning in egg rejection behaviour of Great Reed Warblers Acrocephalus arundinaceus. J Avian Biol 34:16–19
Mumme RL, Koenig WD (1991) Explanations of avian helping behavior. Trends Ecol Evol 6:343–344
Nakamura S, Hashimoto H, Sootome O (1984) Breeding ecology of Motacilla alba and M. grandis and their interspecific relationship. J Yamashina Inst Ornithol 16:114–135
Nethersole-Thompson C, Nethersole-Thompson D (1942) Egg-shell disposal by birds. Br Birds 35:162–250
Newton I (1967) The feeding ecology of the Bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula) in Southern England. J Anim Ecol 36:721–744
Nice MM (1964) Studies in the life history of the Song Sparrow. Volumes I and II. Dover, New York. [First published in 1937 (vol I) and 1943 (vol II) by the Transactions of the Linnaean Society of New York.]
Nolan V Jr (1978) The ecology and behavior of the Prairie Warbler Dendroica discolor. Ornithol Monographs, No. 26
Nolan V Jr, Ketterson ED, Buerkle CA (1999) Prairie Warbler (Dendroica discolor). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.455; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/455
Noske RA (1980) Co-operative breeding and plumage variation in the Orange-winged (Varied) Sittella. Corella 4:45–53
O’Connor R (1984) The growth and development of birds. Wiley, London
Ortega CP, Cruz A (1988) Mechanisms of egg acceptance by marsh-dwelling blackbirds. Condor 90:349–358
Ortega JC, Ortega CP, Cruz A (1993) Does Brown-headed Cowbird egg coloration influence red-winged blackbird responses towards nest contents? Condor 95:217–219
Ouellet H (1991) Savannah Sparrow attends nest of Lapland Longspur. Bird Behav 9:30–33
Owen JH (1940) Birds brooding on empty nests. Br Birds 34:105–106
Peer BD, Sealy SG (2004a) Correlates of egg rejection in hosts of the Brown-headed Cowbird. Condor 106:580–599
Peer BD, Sealy SG (2004b) The fate of grackle (Quiscalus) defenses in the absence of brood parasitism: implication for host-parasite coevolutionary cycles. Auk 121:1172–1186
Peer BD, Rothstein SI, Delaney KS, Fleischer RC (2007) Defence behaviour against brood parasitism is deeply rooted in mainland and Island Scrub-Jays. Anim Behav 73:55–63
Pennycuick CJ (2008) Flight 1.21. School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol
Petit DR, Petit LJ (1987) Fecal sac dispersal by Prothonotary Warblers: Weatherhead’s hypothesis re-evaluated. Condor 89:610–613
Petit DR, Petit LJ (1988) Reply to Weatherhead: a problem of interpreting stated hypotheses rather than “intention”. Condor 90:519–521
Petit KE, Petit LJ, Petit DR (1989) Fecal sac removal: do the pattern and distance of dispersal affect the chance of nest predation? Condor 91:479–482
Pettingill OS Jr (1985) Ornithology in laboratory and field, 5th edn. Academic Press, Orlando
Picman J (1989) Mechanism of increased puncture resistance of eggs of Brown-headed Cowbirds. Auk 106:577–583
Post W, Poston JP, Bancroft GT (1996) Boat-tailed Grackle (Quiscalus major). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.207; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/207
Quinney TE (1986) Male and female parental care in Tree Swallows. Wilson Bull 98:150–152
Rand AL (1942) Nest sanitation and an alleged releaser. Auk 59:404–409
Rasmussen JL, Underwood TJ, Sealy SG (2010) Functional morphology as a barrier to the evolution of grasp-ejection in hosts of the Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater). Can J Zool 88:1210–1217
Rothstein SI (1975) An experimental and teleonomic investigation of avian brood parasitism. Condor 77:250–271
Rothstein SI (1982) Successes and failures in avian egg and nestling recognition with comments on the utility of optimality reasoning. Am Zool 22:547–560
Rothstein SI (1990) A model system for coevolution: avian brood parasitism. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 21:481–508
Rothstein SI, Robinson SK (eds) (1998) Parasitic birds and their hosts: studies in coevolution. Oxford University Press, New York
Royama T (1966) Factors governing feeding rate, food requirement and brood size of nestling Great Tits Parus major. Ibis 108:313–347
SAS Institute (1990) SAS/STAT® user’s guide. Version 6, 4th edn. SAS Institute, Cary
Schaeffer KM, Brown WP, Shriver WG (2009) Misdirected parental care by a male Eastern Towhee at a Wood Thrush nest. Wilson J Ornithol 121:427–429
Sealy SG (1995) Burial of cowbird eggs by parasitized Yellow Warblers: an empirical and experimental study. Anim Behav 49:877–889
Sealy SG (1996) Evolution of host defenses against brood parasitism: implications of puncture-ejection by a small passerine. Auk 113:346–355
Sealy SG, Bazin RC (1995) Low frequency of observed cowbird parasitism on Eastern Kingbirds: host rejection, effective nest defense, or parasite avoidance? Behav Ecol 6:140–145
Sealy SG, Lorenzana JC (1997) Feeding of nestling and fledgling brood parasites by individuals other than the foster parents: a review. Can J Zool 75:1739–1752
Selous E (1933) Evolution of habit in birds. Constable, London
Shaver NE (1918) A nest study of the Maryland Yellow-Throat. Univ Iowa Stud Nat Hist 8:1–12
Shy M (1982) Interspecific feeding among some birds: a review. J Field Ornithol 53:370–393
Simkiss K (1961) Calcium metabolism and avian reproduction. Biol Rev 36:321–367
Skadhauge E (1981) Osmoregulation in birds. Springer, Berlin
Skutch AF (1976) Parent birds and their young. University of Texas Press, Austin
Smith S (1942) The instinctive nature of nest sanitation. Br Birds 35:120–124
Smith S (1943) The instinctive nature of nest sanitation. Part II. Br Birds 36:186–188
Smith S (1947) How to study birds. Collins, London
Smith S (1950) The Yellow Wagtail. Collins, London
Spencer KA (2005) The effects of nest sanitation and provisioning effort in breeding Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica). Can J Zool 83:1360–1364
Stake MM, Cavanagh PM (2001) Removal of host nestlings and fecal sacs by Brown-headed Cowbirds. Wilson Bull 113:456–459
Stevens HC (2005) Breeding biology of the Grey Shrike-Thrush (Colluricincla harmonica). Emu 105:223–231
Stoddard MC, Stevens M (2010) Pattern mimicry of host eggs by the Common Cuckoo, as seen through a bird’s eye. Proc R Soc Lond B 277:1387–1393
Swynnerton CFM (1918) Rejections by birds of eggs unlike their own: with remarks on some of the cuckoo problems. Ibis 6:127–154
Thomson DF (1934) Some adaptations for the disposal of feces. The hygiene of the nest in Australian birds. Proc R Soc Lond B 46:701–706
Timson JE, Farley GH (2003) Intraspecific helping behavior exhibited by hatch-year House Wren. Southwest Nat 48:300–301
Tinbergen N (1939) On the analysis of social organization among vertebrates, with special reference to birds. Am Midl Nat 21:210–234
Tinbergen N, Broekhuysen J, Feekes F, Houghton JCW, Kruuk H, Szulc E (1962) Egg shell removal by the Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibundus L.: a behaviour component of camouflage. Behaviour 19:74–117
Tomek T (1988) The breeding biology of the Dunnock Prunella modularis modularis (Linnaeus, 1758) in the Ojców National Park (South Poland). Acta Zool Cracov 31:115–166
Tripet F, Glaser M, Richner H (2002) Behavioural responses to ectoparasites: time-budget adjustments and what matters to Blue Tits Parus caeruleus infested by fleas. Ibis 144:461–469
Underwood TJ, Sealy SG (2006a) Influence of shape on egg discrimination in American Robins and Gray Catbirds. Ethology 112:164–173
Underwood TJ, Sealy SG (2006b) Parameters of Brown-headed Cowbird Molothrus ater egg recognition and ejection in Warbling Vireos Vireo gilvus. J Avian Biol 37:457–466
Underwood TJ, Sealy SG (2008) UV reflectance of eggs of Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) and accepter and rejecter hosts. J Ornithol 149:313–321
Valencia J, de la Cruz C, González B (2003) Flexible helping behaviour in the Azure-winged Magpie. Ethology 109:545–558
Van Roo BL (2004) Exogenous testosterone inhibits several forms of male parental behaviour and stimulates song in a monogamous songbird: the Blue-headed Vireo (Vireo solitarius). Horm Behav 46:678–683
Van Tyne J, Berger AJ (1971) Fundamentals of ornithology. Dover, New York
Verbeek NAM (1996) Occurrence of egg-capping in birds’ nests. Auk 113:703–705
Wallace GJ, Mahan HD (1975) An introduction to ornithology, 3rd edn. Macmillan, New York
Washington D (1986) Treecreeper attaching fecal sacs to pole. Br Birds 79:43
Weatherhead PJ (1984) Fecal sac removal by Tree Swallows: the cost of cleanliness. Condor 86:187–191
Weatherhead PJ (1988) Adaptive disposal of fecal sacs? Condor 90:518–519
Weitzel NH (2003) Western Bluebird (Sialia mexicana) fecal sac dispersal at Kellogg, Oregon. West N Am Nat 63:268–270
Weitzel NH (2005) White-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis) fecal sac dispersal in Northwestern Nevada. West N Am Nat 65:229–232
Welty JC (1982) The life of birds, 3rd edn. CBS College, Philadelphia
Winkler DW (2004) Nests, eggs, and young: breeding biology of birds. Pt. 2, Chap. 8. In: Podulka S, Rohrbaugh RW Jr, Bonney R (eds) Handbook of bird biology, 2nd edn. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Princeton University Press, Ithaca, pp 1–152
Woolfenden GE, Fitzpatrick JW (1996) Florida Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca. doi:10.2173/bna.228; http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/228
Wright AA (1972) Psychometric and psychophysical hue discrimination functions for the pigeon. Vis Res 12:1447–1764
Wright J (1998) Helping-at-the-nest and group size in the Arabian Babbler Turdoides squamiceps. J Avian Biol 29:105–112
Acknowledgments
We thank Document Delivery services at the University of Manitoba for providing numerous copies of manuscripts, books, and microfilms sought throughout our research. We thank K.H. Elliott and T.J. Underwood for constructive comments on a draft of this manuscript. This work was funded by Undergraduate Summer Research Awards and a Canada Graduate Scholarship to M.F.G. and a Discovery Grant (9556) to S.G.S. from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by F. Bairlein.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
10336_2011_731_MOESM1_ESM.doc
Supplementary Material 1: Common and scientific names of species mentioned in the text and in supplementary material. Order and nomenclature follow Gill and Wright (2006) (DOC 228 kb)
10336_2011_731_MOESM4_ESM.doc
Supplementary Material 4: Responses of passerine birds to non-egg-shaped objects added to their nest or to the vicinity of their nest during the nestling stage (DOC 37 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Guigueno, M.F., Sealy, S.G. Nest sanitation in passerine birds: implications for egg rejection in hosts of brood parasites. J Ornithol 153, 35–52 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-011-0731-0
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-011-0731-0