Abstract
In this paper, I describe my 62 years in primatology focusing on some of the key findings from fieldwork conducted in Japan, India, and Africa. My first study on nonhuman primates described in detail the division of a troop of Japanese macaques at Takasakiyama. After that, I had an opportunity to work on Hanuman langurs at Dharwar, India. These langurs lived in one-male, multi-female groups. This type of group structure was maintained through takeovers by all-male parties. The adult male and all juvenile males were chased out of the group. By this process, the one-male, multi-female group system was maintained. The incoming adult male bit and killed all infants in the group. Mothers who lost their infants went into estrus and mated with the newly arrived male. For many years, scientists ignored these events or ruled them out as abnormal behavior. My work on Japanese macaques suggested that concentrated resources created by artificial feeding exaggerated dominance rank hierarchies among individuals, whereas it is comparatively relaxed in the natural environment. I also investigated the population dynamics of a troop and the life histories of individuals. From these studies, I documented the frequency of twin births, the carrying of dead infants by mothers, and the occurrence of physical malformations. These observations were made possible through artificial feeding, revealing the merits and demerits of this approach. I pointed out that authors and journal editors must be careful to acknowledge important elements of the environment where studies are conducted, and these should be described when reporting results in scientific articles. My studies of chimpanzees were conducted at Bossou, Guinea. I suggested that there are males who lived outside of bisexual groups. Chimpanzees in this population made and used many kinds of tools. Some of them were observed only at Bossou, and a few were only discovered 20 years after the establishment of Bossou as a research site. After decades of research on tool use in this species, I also suggested that there are cultural zones throughout the geographic distribution of chimpanzees.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Albrecht H, Dunnet SC (1971) Chimpanzees in western Africa. Piper, Munich
Beatty H (1951) A note on the behavior of the chimpanzee. J Mammal 32:118
DeVore I (ed) (1965) Primate behavior. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York
Furuya Y (1960) An example of fission of a natural troop of Japanese monkeys at Gagyusan. Primates 2:149–179
Goodall J (1962) Nest building behavior in the free ranging chimpanzee. Ann NY Acad Sci 102:455–467
Higham J, Heistermann M, Muhammad A, Perwitasari-Jarajallah D, Widding A, Englehardt (2021) Female fertile phase synchrony, and mating and reproductive skew, in the crested macaque. Sci Rep 11:4251–4262
Hrdy SB (1974) Male-male competition and infanticide among the langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajasthan. Folia Primatol 22:19–58
Hrdy SB (1979) Infanticide among animals: a review, classification, and examination of implications for the reproductive strategies of females. Ethol Sociobiol 1:13–40
Huffman MA (1991) Mate selection and partner preferences in female Japanese macaques. In: Fedigan LM, Asquith PJ (eds) The Monkeys of Arashiyama. State Univ New York, New York, pp 101–122
Humle T, Yamakoshi G, Matsuzawa T (2011) Algae scooping remains a puzzle. In: Matsuzawa T, Humle T, Sugiyama Y (eds) The Chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer, Tokyo, pp 117–122
Inoue M, Mitsunaga F, Ohsawa H, Takenaka A, Sugiyama Y, Soumah AG, Takenaka O (1991) Male mating behavior and paternity discrimination by DNA fingerprinting in a Japanese macaque group. Folia Primatol 56:202–210
Inoue M, Sugiyama Y, Kawamoto S, Takenaka O, Kumazaki K, Miwa N (1993) Paternity discrimination and inter-group relationhips of chimpanzees at Bossou. Primates 34:545–552
Itani J (1954) Monkeys of Takasakiyama. Kobunsha, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Itani J (1985) Japanese primatology in retrospect and in prespect. Primate Res 1:5–14 (in Japanese)
Itani J (1990) Nature’s mercy. Heibonsha, Tokyo (in Japanese)
Jay P (1965) The common langur of north India. In: DeVore (ed) Primate behavior: field studies of monkeys and apes, Holt. Rinehart &Winston, New York, pp 197–249
Kawamura S (1957) Deer of Nara Park. In: Imanishi K (ed) Japan Animal Monographs, vol 4. Kobunsha, Tokyo, pp 7–165 (in Japanese)
Kohler V (1917) Intelligenzprufungen an Menschenaffen. Springer, Berlin
Kortlandt A, Holzhaus E (1987) New data on the use of stone tools by chimpanzees in Guinea and Liberia. Primates 28:473–496
Kummer H, Kurt F (1963) Social units of a free-living population of hamadryas baboons. Folia Primatol 1:4–19
Kurita H, Sugiyama Y, Ohsawa H, Hamada Y, Watanabe T (2008) Changes in demographic parameters of Macaca fuscata at Takasakiyama in relation to decrease of provisioned foods. Int J Primatol 29:1189–1202
Kutsukake N, Nunn CL (2006) Comparative tests of reproductive skews in male primates: the roles of demobraphic factors and incomplete control. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 60:695–706
McGrew WC (1992) Chimpanzee material culture. Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge
Missakian EA (1973) The timing of fission among free-ranging rhesus monkeys. Am J Phys Anthrop 38:621–662
Miyadi D (1964) Report on the activity of the Japan-India joint project in primates investigation. Primates 5:1–6
Mohnot SM (1971) Some aspects of social changes and infant-killing in the Hanuman langur, Presbytis entellus (Primates: Cercopithecidae), in western India. Mammalia 35:175–198
Muller MN, Wrangham RW (2014) Mortality rates among Kanyawara chimpanzees. J Hum Evol 66:107–114
Nishida T (1968) The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahali mountains. Primates 9:167–224
Nishida T (1980) The leaf-clipping display: a newly discovered expressive gesture in wild chimpanzees. J Hum Evol 9:117–118
Nishida T, Zamma K, Matsusaka T, Inaba A, McGrew WC (eds) (2010) Chimpanzee Behavior in the wild: an audio-visual encyclopedia. Springer, Tokyo
Nissen HW (1931) A field study of the chimpanzee: observations of chimpanzee behavior and environment in western French Guinea. Comp Psychol Monogr 8:1–122
Ohsawa H, Sugiyama Y (1996) Population dynamics of Japanese monkeys at Takasakiyama: trends in 1985–1992. In: Shotake T, Wada K (eds) Variations in Asian Macaques. Tokai Univ Press, Tokyo, pp 163–179
Reynolds V (1963) An outline of the behavior and social organization of forest-living chimpanzees. Folia Primatol 1:95–102
Ripley S (1967) Inter-troop encounters among Ceylon gray langurs (Presbytis entellus). In: Altmann SA (ed) Social communication among Primates. Chicago University Press, Chicago, pp 237–253
Sabater-Pi J (1974) An elementary industry of the chimpanzees in the Okorobiko Mountains, Rio Muni (Republic of Equatorial Guinea), west Africa. Primates 15:351–364
Sans C, Morgan D, Gulick S (2004) New insights into chimpanzees, tools, and termites from the Cong basin. Am Nat 164:567–581
Soumah AG, Yokota N (1991) Female rank and feeding strategies in a free-ranging provisioned troop of Japanese macaques. Folia Primatol 57:191–200
Struhsaker TT, Hunkeler P (1971) Evidence of tool-using by chimpanzees in the Ivory Coast. Folia Primatol 15:212–219
Sugiyama Y (1960) On the division of a natural troop of Japanese monkeys at Takasakiyama. Primates 2:109–148
Sugiyama Y (1961) The social structure of a sand-crab, Scopimera globosa De Haan, with special reference to its population. Physiol Ecol 10(1):10–17 (in Japanese with English summary)
Sugiyama Y (1964a) Preliminary report on the social life of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). Physiol Ecol 12:175–184 (in Japanese with English summary)
Sugiyama Y (1964b) Group composition, population density and some sociological observations of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). Primates 5(3–4):7–37
Sugiyama Y (1965a) Behavioral development and social structure in two troops of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). Primates 6:213–247
Sugiyama Y (1965b) On the social change of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus) in their natural condition. Primates 6:381–418
Sugiyama Y (1966) An artificial social change in a Hanuman langur troop (Presbytis entellus). Primates 7:41–72
Sugiyama Y (1967) Social organization of Hanuman langurs. In: Altmann SA (ed) Social communication among Primates. University Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 221–236
Sugiyama Y (1968a) Ecology of the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus Linneaeus): a pilot study. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 65:283–293
Sugiyama Y (1968b) Social organization of chimpanzees in the Budongo forest, Uganda. Primates 9:225–258
Sugiyama Y (1969) Social behavior of chimpanzees in the Budongo forest. Primates 10:197–225
Sugiyama Y (1971) Characteristics of the social life of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata). Primates 12:247–266
Sugiyama Y (1976) Life history of male Japanese monkeys. In: Rosenblatt JS, Hinde RA, Shaw E, Beer C (eds) Advances in the study of behavior 7. Academic Press, N.Y., pp 255–284
Sugiyama Y (1981) Observations on the population dynamics and behavior of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea, in 1979–1980. Primates 22:435–444
Sugiyama Y (1985) The brush-stick of chimpanzees found in south-west Cameroon and their cultural characteristics. Primates 26:361–374
Sugiyama Y (1993) Local variation of tools and tool use among wild chimpanzee populations. In: Berthelet A, Chavaillon J (eds) The use of tools by human and non-human primates. Clarendon Press of Oxford Univ Press, Oxford, pp 175–187
Sugiyama Y (1994a) Age-specific birth rate and lifetime reproductive success of chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Am J Primatol 32:311–318
Sugiyama Y (1994b) Tool use by wild chimpanzees. Nature 367:327
Sugiyama Y (1995a) Drinking tools of wild chimpanzees at Bossou. Am J Primatol 37:263–269
Sugiyama Y (1995b) Tool-use for catching arts by chimpanzees at Bossou and Monts Nimba, west Africa. Primates 36:193–205
Sugiyama Y (1997) Social tradition and the use of tool-composites by wild chimpanzees. Evol Anthropol 6:23–27
Sugiyama Y (1999) Socioecological factors of male chimpanzee migration at Bossou, Guinea. Primates 40:61–68
Sugiyama Y (2004) Demographic parameters and life history of chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Am J Phys Anthropol 124:154–165
Sugiyama Y (2012) Arashiyama monkeys in the late 1950s. In: Leca JB, Huffman MA, Vasey PL (eds) The Monkeys of Stormy mountain. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, pp 34–41
Sugiyama Y (2015) Influence of artificial feeding to primate behavior and primate studies. Mammalia 79:255–265
Sugiyama Y, Humle T (2011) A wild chimpanzee uses a stick to disable a snare at Bossou, Guinea. Pan Africa News 18:3–4
Sugiyama Y, Koman J (1979a) Social structure and dynamics of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Primates 20:323–339
Sugiyama Y, Koman J (1979b) Tool-using and –making behavior in wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Primates 20:513–524
Sugiyama Y, Ohsawa H (1982a) Population dynamics of Japanese macaques at Ryozenyama: 3. Female desertion of the troop. Primates 23:31–44
Sugiyama Y, Ohsawa H (1982b) Population dynamics of Japanese macaques with special reference to the effect of artificial feeding. Folia Primatol 39:238–263
Sugiyama Y, Parthasarathy MD (1979) Population change of the Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus), 1961–1976, in Dharwar area, India. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 75:860–867
Sugiyama Y, Yoshiba K, Parthasarathy MD (1965) Home range, mating season, male group and inter-troop relations of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). Primates 6:73–106
Sugiyama Y, Fushimi T, Sakura O, Matsuzawa T (1993a) Hand preference and tool use in wild chimpanzees. Primates 34:151–159
Sugiyama Y, Kawamoto S, Takenaka O, Kumazaki K, Miwa N (1993b) Paternity discrimination and inter-group relationships of chimpanzees at Bossou. Primates 34:545–552
Sugiyama Y, Iwamoto T, Ono Y (1995) Population control of artificially provisioned Japanese monkeys. Primate Res 11:197–207
Sugiyama Y, Kurita H, Matsui T, Kimoto S, Shimomura T (2009) Carrying of dead-infants by Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) mothers. Anthropol Sci 117:113–119
Sugiyama Y, Kurita H, Matsui T, Shimomura T (2011) Twining frequency of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) at Takasakiyama. Primates 52:19–23
Sugiyama Y, Kurita H, Matsui T, Kimoto S, Egawa J (2014) Congenital malformation in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) at Takasakiyama. Primates 55:303–311
Takemoto H, Hirata S, Sugiyama Y (2004) The formation of the brush-sticks: modification of chimpanzees or the by-product of folding? Primates 46:183–189
Takenaka O, Takasaki H, Kawamoto S, Arakawa M, Takenaka A (1993) Polymorphic Microsatellite DNA amplification customized for chimpanzee paternity testing. Primates 34:27–35
Tsuji Y, Sugiyama Y (2014) Female emigration in Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata: ecological and social backgrounds and its biogeographical implications. Mammalia 7:281–290
Warren JM (1967) Discussion on social dynamics. In: Altmann SA (ed) Social Communication among Primates. Chicago University Press, Chicago, pp 255–257
Whiten A, Goodall J, McGrew WC, Nishida T, Reynolds V, Sugiyama Y, Tutin CEG, Wrangham RW, Boesch C (1999) Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature 399:682–685
Wilson EO (1975) Sociobiology: the new synthesis. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Harvard
Yamakoshi G, Sugiyama Y (1995) Pestle-pounding behavior of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea: a newly observed tool-using behavior. Primates 36:489–501
Acknowledgements
Nelson Broche kindly helped me prepare the English version of the manuscript. Comments by John Mitani and two reviewers improved the paper. During over 60 years of research on monkeys and apes, many senior colleagues, friends, government officials and field assistants supported me. My heartfelt thanks to them and to the many organizations that have made my work possible.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
About this article
Cite this article
Sugiyama, Y. My primate studies. Primates 63, 9–24 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-021-00969-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-021-00969-9