Abstract
A characteristic feature of the mines in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin in southern Poland is their highly saline mine water. In the past, this water was often discharged into anthropogenic reservoirs located a short distance from the mines, which completely changed the physicochemical properties of the water. In some cases, it also led to stratification of the reservoir waters, i.e. to the formation of meromictic water bodies. The Rontok Wielki reservoir, a former fish breeding pond, was converted into a settling tank for the highly saline (Cl− = 38,000 mg/L) water discharging from the Silesia Mine. The water in the tank stratified in three distinct zones: a mixolimnion, chemocline, and monolimnion. The saline mine water input ceased in 2003 and since then, there has been a gradual decrease in the electrical conductivity and [Cl−] in the reservoir waters. Moreover, meromixis has been entirely eliminated and freshwater breeding species have reappeared. A control, the Rontok reservoir, which was also a breeding pond, but was never used to settle saline mine water, was also studied for comparison.
Zusammenfassung
Ein Charakteristikum der Bergbaue im oberschlesischen Kohlenrevier in Südpolen sind die stark salinaren Grubenwässer. In der Vergangenheit wurden diese Wässer oft in anthropogen geschaffene Reservoire in der Nähe der Gruben eingeleitet und dadurch die physiochemischen Eigenschaften des Wassers grundlegend verändert. In einigen Fällen führte es auch zu einer Schichtung des Wassers in den Reservoiren, das heißt zur Bildung von meromiktischen Wasserkörpern. Das Rontok Wielki Reservoir, ein vormals für Fischzucht verwendeter Teich wurde in ein Absetzbecken für hochsalinare (Cl- = 38,000 mg/l) Grubenwässer der Silesia Grube umgewandelt. Das Wasser im Teich hat sich in drei Zonen geschichtet: Mixolimnion, Chemokline und Monimolimnion. Der Eintrag salinarer Grubenwässer wurde 2003 eingestellt. Seit damals hat sich ein allmählicher Rückgang der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit und des Chlorionengehalts im Wasser des Reservoirs eingestellt. Darüber hinaus ist die Meromiktik vollständig eliminiert und an Frischwasser gebundene Spezies sind wieder aufgetreten. Als Referenz wurde das Rontok Reservoir, das ebenfalls als Zuchtbecken verwendet wird, welches aber nie mit salinaren Grubenwässern beaufschlagt worden ist, zu Vergleichszwecken untersucht.
Resumen
Un rasgo característico de las minas en la Cuenca del Carbón de la Alta Silesia en el sur de Polonia es su agua de mina altamente salina. En el pasado, esta agua a menudo se descargaba en depósitos antropogénicos ubicados a poca distancia de las minas, lo que cambió por completo las propiedades fisicoquímicas del agua. En algunos casos, también condujo a la estratificación de las aguas del embalse, es decir, a la formación de cuerpos de agua meromícticos. El depósito Rontok Wielki, un antiguo estanque de cría de peces, se convirtió en un tanque de sedimentación para la descarga de agua altamente salina (Cl- = 38.000 mg/L) de la Mina Silesia. El agua en el tanque se estratificó en tres zonas distintas: un mixolimnion, quimioclina y monolimnion. La entrada de agua de la mina salina cesó en 2003 y desde entonces ha habido una disminución gradual en la conductividad eléctrica y [Cl-] en las aguas del embalse. Además, la meromixis ha sido completamente eliminada y las especies de cría de agua dulce han reaparecido. Un control, el depósito Rontok, que también era un estanque de cría pero nunca se usó para sedimentar el agua de la mina salina, fue utilizado para comparar.
抽象
波兰南部上西里西亚煤田煤矿的显著特征是矿井水盐度高。过去,矿井水被排入离煤矿不远的人工水库,彻底改变了水体的物理化学性质。有时,导致水库水体分层,形成半对流水体。Rontok Wielki水库以前曾是鱼塘,后被改作煤矿高盐度矿井水(Cl-=38,000mg/L)沉清池。沉清池水明显形成了三个分层:混成层、化变层和单一层。自2003年,不再向水库排放高盐度矿井水,水库水电导率和[Cl-]逐渐降低。而且,当半对流状态完全消失时,水库再次出现淡水鱼类。同时,以未作沉清池的养殖池Rontok水库为对照进行了对比分析。
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Introduction
A characteristic feature of the mines in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin in southern Poland is their highly saline mine water (Różkowski 2004). Storage-dosing tanks were built and used to reduce the negative downstream impact of the discharge of saline waters. During times of low water flow in the river, the mine water was stored in these tanks until periods of high flow, so as to take advantage of dilution (Anielak 2000). In many cases, existing anthropogenic reservoirs, such as post-exploitation voids or fish breeding ponds, were adapted as storage-dosing tanks. This completely changed the physicochemical properties of the water in the ponds.
Although mine water is no longer discharged into these reservoirs, they are still saline and some of them are meromictic (Molenda 2014a). Meromixis in this climatic zone (mid-latitudes of the northern hemisphere) is a very rare phenomenon (Boehrer and Schulze 2008; Hutchinson 1957), as the entire mass of water in reservoirs (lakes) commonly mixes in spring and autumn (Hutchinson 1957). Meromixis has, however, been observed in post-exploitation excavations of lignite (Dietz et al. 2012; Jędrczak 1992), sulphur (Wilk-Woźniak and Żurek 2005; Żurek 2002), and gypsum (Madonia et al. 2006). Meromixis can also be caused by the inflow of highly contaminated groundwater into a reservoir (Galas 2003; Motyka and Postawa 2000), or leachate from landfills (Czop et al. 2011; Hrdinka et al. 2013). A special case is biogenic meromixis (Molenda 2015).
We examined the physicochemical properties and limnic processes in the storage-dosing Rontok Wielki reservoir, including the process of treating the reservoir water after the discharge stopped. The study also included a control, the Rontok tank, a nearby fish breeding pond that has never received mine water.
Site Location
The Rontok Wielki tank (50°14′25.55″N, 18°59′33.36″E) is located in Rudołtowice (Fig. 1). The tank was a typical pond, built in the seventeenth century for fish farming. Water is supplied via drainage of the first groundwater aquifer (a sand reservoir) and inflow from a small watercourse. In hydrological terms, it is a through-flow water body, with the outflow to the Vistula River (Fig. 1). The surface area of the reservoir is 0.32 km2, and a maximum depth is 3.0 m.
During the 1970s, the Rontok Wielki fish breeding pond was adapted to be a settling tank for the Silesia Mine. Adaptation of the pond included constructing new, higher dikes (embankments). However, due to concerns of brine infiltration into nearby peat deposits (used in medical treatments), the storage-dosing function was turned to a mechanical function. The water discharged into the reservoir was saline, with an average electrolytic conductivity (EC) of 74 mS/cm and an average chloride concentration of 38,000 mg/L (Materiały KWK “Silesia” 1990). In 2003, a new settling tank was built for the mine water and discharge to the reservoir ceased.
The Rontok pond, adjacent to Rontok Wielki, was used as a control (Fig. 1). This reservoir only received natural (fresh) water, and did not receive mine water. Both tanks are located in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere, with four distinctive seasons (Table 1).
Research Methods
Measurements of basic physical and chemical properties of water (temperature, EC) were carried out directly in the field by a multiparameter probe EDS 6600 by YSI (manufactured by the USA) and Multiline P4 by WTW (manufactured by the Germany). Before each test, the probe was calibrated using standard solutions. Water parameters were determined in the tank along a vertical column every 0.5 m for 3 m at a point in the deepest point of the reservoir. The study was conducted in spring and autumn (mixing periods).
Water samples were also collected for chemical analysis. Water from the upper 0.5 m was collected using a telescopic boom, stored in polyethylene bottles, and transported to the laboratory at a temperature of + 4 °C. Before analysis, the samples were filtered through a 0.45 µm filter (Millipore). Laboratory analysis included determination of major anions and cations in the water: Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, HCO3−, SO42−, and Cl−. The analyses were performed on an ion chromatograph Metrohm 850 Professional IC. Classification of hydrochemical types of water was based on the classification by Shchukaryev and Pryklonsky (Macioszczyk 1987). The analysis also took advantage of archival materials on the physicochemical properties of the mine water during operation of the tank. This study relies on archived materials for the 2001–2003 data, while our own research was conducted 2004–2010. The analytical procedures were the same as Molenda (2014a).
All statistical analyses were performed using the R program (R Development Core Team 2009). To check the significance of differences, a nonparametric equivalent of analysis of variance—the Kruskal–Wallis test was used, and for multiple comparisons—the Conover test. All data is presented using box-and-whisker plots.
Results and Discussion
The saline mine waters that entered Rontok Wielki had a strong EC (averaging 74 mS/cm) and a high concentration of chloride (Cl−) ions (averaging 38,000 mg/L). This discharge changed the physicochemical properties of the pond waters, as can be seen by comparison with the Rontok control pond (Figs. 2, 3). However, there were no statistically significant differences in sulphate (Fig. 4). Mine water from the Silesia Mine had low concentrations of this ion, especially when compared with water from other mines in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin, where the sulphate concentrations in mine water can reach several thousand mg/L (Różkowski 2004).
The waters of the Rontok Wielki reservoir became a chloride-sodium type (Cl−–Na+), while the waters of the Rontok control reservoir are a bicarbonate-calcium type (HCO3−–Ca2+). A chloride-sodium type of water (Cl−–Na+) is characteristic of many mines in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (Różkowski 2004).
In 2003, the discharge of saline mine water into Rontok Wielki was discontinued and the tank ceased to operate. As a result, the salinity of its waters started to decrease (Fig. 5). The supply of fresh meteoric and groundwater and pond outflow resulted in the tank water becoming less saline over time (Fig. 6); a lower Cl− concentration was recorded in each successive year. It is also noted that while the reservoir was operating, until 2003, Cl− showed a much greater range between spring and autumn measurements (Fig. 6), due to mine water discharges of varying salinity.
Changes of electrolytic conductivity [mS/cm] of water pond “Rontok Wielki” in the years 2001–2010 (according to Molenda 2011; modified)
Changes of the concentration of chlorides [mg/L] in the water of the pond “Rontok Wielki” in the years 2001–2010 (according to Molenda 2011, modified)
No downward trend was recorded for sulphate and there was still a significant spread between the concentrations recorded in spring and autumn, even after the reservoir had been put out of service (Fig. 7). This indicates that sulphate was, and is, coming from other sources. In the immediate vicinity of the reservoir, there is a mine waste landfill (Fig. 1), where a Carboniferous mixture of shale, siltstone, and sandstone is deposited. Numerous studies (Molenda 2014b; Chmura and Molenda 2012) indicate that the water leaching from the mine waste is an important sulphate source.
Changes of the concentration of sulfate [mg/L] in the water of the pond “Rontok Wielki” in the years 2001–2010 (according to Molenda 2011; modified)
Very large differences in the vertical profile of EC were recorded in Rontok Wielki, despite a very shallow tank (hmax 3.0 m); complete water mixing did not take place, even shortly after cessation of the tank operation, in Autumn, 2004 (when the difference in the EC between the water surface and bottom layer was 37 mS/cm) and Spring, 2006 (when the difference was 52.8 mS/cm; Fig. 8).
Electric conductance profiles of “Rontok Wielki”: a—autumn 2004, b—spring 2006, c—spring 2007, d—spring 2009, e—summer 2004 (according to Molenda 2011; modified)
The water in the tank could be divided into three characteristic zones: the mixolimnion (to a depth of ~ 1 m), chemocline (~ 1 to 2 m), and monimolimnion (below 2 m). Such a distribution of EC in the vertical column clearly indicates a meromictic water body. In a normal lake or reservoir, complete mixing and homogenisation of the physicochemical properties of the water should take place in spring and autumn, such as observed in the Rontok reservoir, which does not receive mine water (Fig. 9). Large differences in EC in a vertical column of the tank (during spring and autumn homothermis) are one of the main criteria that allow identification of meromictic water bodies (Dietz et al. 2012; Espana et al. 2009; Żurek 2002; Hrdinka et al. 2013; Molenda 2014a, 2015; Hongve 1980; Kazanci et al. 2008).
The thermal profiles are also noteworthy. Both in autumn 2004 and spring 2006, water temperature in the vertical profile in the Rontok Wielki tank was not uniform (Fig. 10). It reached 10–12 °C at the bottom, while the upper 2 m were 4 °C. In the Rontok tank, classic homothermis occurred and the water temperature in the entire profile was 4 °C (Fig. 11). A similar anomaly was also found by Molenda (2014a) in another saline meromictic reservoir. Another thermal anomaly appeared in summer 2004, when a temperature of 22 °C was recorded at a depth of 1.5 m (Fig. 10). Temperature rise in the chemocline has also been detected in other meromictic reservoirs (Skowron 1995; Molenda 2014a).
Temperature profiles in “Rontok Wielki”: a—autumn 2004, b—spring 2006, c—spring 2007, d—spring 2009, e—summer 2004 (according to Molenda 2011; modified)
Complete disturbance of the permanent stratification of water in the Rontok Wielki reservoir took place in spring 2007, i.e. four years after the tank was taken out of service. In spring 2007, homogenous EC values and temperatures were recorded throughout the vertical profile (Figs. 8, 10). Since then, total mixing of the water has been recorded in spring and autumn. The tank is now regarded as holomictic.
After saline discharges to the reservoir ceased, appropriate freshwater breeding species reoccurred, so that the reservoir could regain the function of a breeding pond. Some of the freshwater fish that have appeared are Ameiurus nebulosus and Gasterosteus aculeatus.
Summary
The results indicate that the discharge of saline mine waters to anthropogenic reservoirs can cause meromixis. In the case of through-flow reservoirs, when they cease to operate, salinity will begin to decrease. Thus, they differ from endorheic settling tanks where there was no decrease in salinity and disappearance of meromixis (Molenda 2014a). The rate of decreasing salinity depends on: the volume and salinity of stored water, the amount of inflowing freshwater (water exchange rate), and the morphometric features of the tank (e.g. wind mixing).
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Acknowledgements
The publication was partially financed with funds from the Leading National Research Centre (KNOW) received by the Centre for Polar Studies of the University of Silesia, Poland.
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Molenda, T. Impact of a Saline Mine Water Discharge on the Development of a Meromictic Pond, the Rontok Wielki Reservoir, Poland. Mine Water Environ 37, 807–814 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-018-0544-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-018-0544-y