Abstract
Community-acquired pneumonia is the most common infectious disease that causes death, with Streptococcus pneumoniae remaining the leading causative pathogen. The worldwide incidence of infections caused by pneumococci resistant to penicillin, macrolides, and other antimicrobial agents has increased at an alarming rate during the past 2 decades. Yet, these agents are still used as first-line empirical therapy in the outpatient setting. There are several reasons for this, including the infrequency of making a pathogen-specific diagnosis, the failure of studies to demonstrate the relevance of resistance, and the infrequency with which clinicians recognize clinical failures. Despite this, there is mounting evidence that supports the practice of using high doses of some antimicrobial agents, a more active antimicrobial agent within a class, or switching to another class of antimicrobial agents when a patient is identified as being at an increased risk of infection with a resistant pneumococcus. There is now information that will allow the physician to identify not only the patient at risk for infection with a resistant pneumococcus but also the antimicrobial class and, in some cases, the agent within the class to which the organism is more likely to be resistant. This will allow clinicians to better define optimal therapy for patients with community-acquired pneumonia.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
British Thoracic Society (1993) Guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults admitted to hospital. Br J Hosp Med 49:346–350
Ruiz-Gonzalez A, Falguera M, Nogues A et al (1999) Is Streptococcus pneumoniae the leading cause of pneumonia of unknown etiology? A microbiologic study of lung aspirates in consecutive patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med 106:385–390
Appelbaum PC (1992) Antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae: an overview. Clin Infect Dis 15:77–83
Sloas MM, Barrett FF, Chesney PJ et al (1992) Cephalosporin treatment failure in penicillin- and cephalosporin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 11:662–666
Catalan MJ, Fernandez JM, Vazquez A et al (1994) Failure of cefotaxime in the treatment of meningitis due to relatively resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 18:766–769
Dagan R, Piglansky L, Fliss DM et al (1997) Bacteriologic response in acute otitis media: comparison between azithromycin, cefaclor and amoxicillin. Program and abstracts, 37th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Toronto, Canada, Abstract no. 346
Friedland IR (1995) Comparison of the response to antimicrobial therapy of penicillin-resistant and penicillin-susceptible pneumococcal disease [see comments]. Pediatr Infect Dis J 14:885–890
Pallares R, Linares J, Vadillo M et al (1995) Resistance to penicillin and cephalosporin and mortality from severe pneumococcal pneumonia in Barcelona, Spain [see comments] [published erratum appears in N Engl J Med (1995) 333:1655]. N Engl J Med 333:474–480
Metlay JP, Hofmann J, Cetron MS et al (2000) Impact of penicillin susceptibility on medical outcomes for adult patients with bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 30:520–528
Ewig S, Ruiz M, Torres A et al (1999) Pneumonia acquired in the community through drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159:1835–1842
Jacobs MR, Koornhof HJ, Robins-Browne RM et al (1978) Emergence of multiply resistant pneumococci. N Engl J Med 299:735–740
Spika JS, Facklam RR, Plikaytis BD et al (1991) Antimicrobial resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States, 1979–1987. The Pneumococcal Surveillance Working Group. J Infect Dis 163:1273–1278
McGeer A, Low DE (2003) Is resistance futile? Nat Med 9:390–392
Powis J, McGeer A, Green K et al (2004) In vitro antimicrobial susceptibilities of Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates obtained in Canada in 2002. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48:3305–3311
Doern GV, Heilmann KP, Huynh HK et al (2001) Antimicrobial resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States during 1999–2000, including a comparison of resistance rates since 1994–1995. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45:1721–1729
Low DE, de Azavedo J, Weiss K et al (2002) Antimicrobial resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Canada during 2000. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46:1295–1301
Jacobs MR (2003) Worldwide trends in antimicrobial resistance among common respiratory tract pathogens in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 22:S109–S119
Chen D, McGeer A, de Azavedo JC et al (1999) Decreased susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada. N Eng J Med 341:233–239
De La Campa AG, Balsalobre L, Ardanuy C et al (2004) Fluoroquinolone resistance in penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae clones, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 10:1751–1759
Linares J, De La Campa AG, Pallares R (1999) Fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med 341:1546–1547
Perez-Trallero E, Fernandez-Mazarrasa C, Garcia-Rey C et al (2001) Antimicrobial susceptibilities of 1,684 Streptococcus pneumoniae and 2,039 Streptococcus pyogenes isolates and their ecological relationships: results of a 1-year (1998–1999) multicenter surveillance study in Spain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45:3334–3340
Ho PL, Que TL, Tsang DN et al (1999) Emergence of fluoroquinolone resistance among multiply resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Hong Kong. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43:1310–1313
Ho PL, Yung RW, Tsang DN et al (2001) Increasing resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones: results of a Hong Kong multicentre study in 2000. J Antimicrob Chemother 48:659–665
File TM Jr, Garau J, Blasi F et al (2004) Guidelines for empiric antimicrobial prescribing in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 125:1888–1901
Metlay JP, Singer DE (2002) Outcomes in lower respiratory tract infections and the impact of antimicrobial drug resistance. Clin Microbiol Infect 8(Suppl 2):1–11
Jacobs MR, Bajaksouzian S, Zilles A et al (1999) Susceptibilities of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae to 10 oral antimicrobial agents based on pharmacodynamic parameters: 1997 U.S. surveillance study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43:1901-1908
Scott JA, Marston EL, Hall AJ et al (2003) Diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia by psaA PCR analysis of lung aspirates from adult patients in Kenya. J Clin Microbiol 41:2554–2559
Metlay JP, Fine MJ (2003) Testing strategies in the initial management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 138:109–118
Musher DM (2005) The usefulness of sputum gram stain and culture. Arch Intern Med 165:470–471
Farr BM, Kaiser DL, Harrison BD et al (1989) Prediction of microbial aetiology at admission to hospital for pneumonia from the presenting clinical features. British Thoracic Society Pneumonia Research Subcommittee. Thorax 44:1031–1035
Fang GD, Fine M, Orloff J et al (1990) New and emerging etiologies for community-acquired pneumonia with implications for therapy. A prospective multicenter study of 359 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 69:307–316
Mandell LA, Bartlett JG, Dowell SF et al (2003) Update of practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompetent adults. Clin Infect Dis 37:1405–1433
Gutierrez F, Masia M, Rodriguez JC et al (2003) Evaluation of the immunochromatographic Binax NOW assay for detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen in a prospective study of community-acquired pneumonia in Spain. Clin Infect Dis 36:286–292
Navarro D, Garcia-Maset L, Gimeno C et al (2004) Performance of the Binax NOW Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen assay for diagnosis of pneumonia in children with underlying pulmonary diseases in the absence of acute pneumococcal infection. J Clin Microbiol 42:4853–4855
Leclercq R (2002) Mechanisms of resistance to macrolides and lincosamides: nature of the resistance elements and their clinical implications. Clin Infect Dis 34:482–492
Craig WA (1998) Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis 26:1–12
National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (2004) Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Information supplement M100-S14. NCCLS, Wayne, PA
Sacho H, Klugman KP, Koornhof HJ et al (1987) Community-acquired pneumonia in an adult due to a multiply-resistant pneumococcus. J Infect 14:188–189
Buckingham SC, Brown SP, Joaquin VH (1998) Breakthrough bacteremia and meningitis during treatment with cephalosporins parenterally for pneumococcal pneumonia. J Pediatr 132:174–176
Dowell SF, Smith T, Leversedge K et al (1999) Failure of treatment of pneumonia associated with highly resistant pneumococci in a child. Clin Infect Dis 29:462–463
Daum RS, Nachman JP, Leitch CD et al (1994) Nosocomial epiglottitis associated with penicillin- and cephalosporin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteremia. J Clin Microbiol 32:246–248
Chesney PJ, Wilimas JA, Presbury G et al (1995) Penicillin- and cephalosporin-resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae causing sepsis and meningitis in children with sickle cell disease. J Pediatr 127:526–532
Winston LG, Perlman JL, Rose DA et al (1999) Penicillin-nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae at San Francisco General Hospital. Clin Infect Dis 29:580–585
Deeks SL, Palacio R, Ruvinsky R et al (1999) Risk factors and course of illness among children with invasive penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. The Streptococcus pneumoniae Working Group. Pediatrics 103:409–413
Yu VL, Chiou CC, Feldman C et al (2003) An international prospective study of pneumococcal bacteremia: correlation with in vitro resistance, antibiotics administered, and clinical outcome. Clin Infect Dis 37:230–237
Turett GS, Blum S, Fazal BA et al (1999) Penicillin resistance and other predictors of mortality in pneumococcal bacteremia in a population with high human immunodeficiency virus seroprevalence. Clin Infect Dis 29:321–327
Feikin DR, Schuchat A, Kolczak M et al (2000) Mortality from invasive pneumococcal pneumonia in the era of antibiotic resistance, 1995–1997. Am J Public Health 90:223–229
Lujan M, Gallego M, Fontanals D et al (2004) Prospective observational study of bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia: effect of discordant therapy on mortality. Crit Care Med 32:625–631
Kelley MA, Weber DJ, Gilligan P et al (2000) Breakthrough pneumococcal bacteremia in patients being treated with azithromycin and clarithromycin. Clin Infect Dis 31:1008–1011
Fogarty C, Goldschmidt R, Bush K (2000) Bacteremic pneumonia due to multidrug-resistant pneumococci in 3 patients treated unsuccessfully with azithromycin and successfully with levofloxacin. Clin Infect Dis 31:613–615
Musher DM, Dowell ME, Shortridge VD et al (2002) Emergence of macrolide resistance during treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. N Engl J Med 346:630–631
Kays MB, Wack MF, Smith DW et al (2002) Azithromycin treatment failure in community-acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae resistant to macrolides by a 23S rRNA mutation. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 43:163–165
Lonks JR, Garau J, Gomez L et al (2002) Failure of macrolide antibiotic treatment in patients with bacteremia due to erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 35:556–564
Perez-Trallero E, Marimon JM, Iglesias L et al (2003) Fluoroquinolone and macrolide treatment failure in pneumococcal pneumonia and selection of multidrug-resistant isolates. Emerg Infect Dis 9:1159–1162
Van Kerkhoven D, Peetermans WE, Verbist L et al (2003) Breakthrough pneumococcal bacteraemia in patients treated with clarithromycin or oral {beta}-lactams. J Antimicrob Chemother 51:691–696
Gonzalez BE, Martinez-Aguilar G, Mason EO Jr et al (2004) Azithromycin compared with beta-lactam antibiotic treatment failures in pneumococcal infections of children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 23:399–405
Butler JC, Lennox JL, McDougal LK et al (2003) Macrolide-resistant pneumococcal endocarditis and epidural abscess that develop during erythromycin therapy. Clin Infect Dis 36:e19–e25
Rodvold KA, Gotfried MH, Danziger LH et al (1997) Intrapulmonary steady-state concentrations of clarithromycin and azithromycin in healthy adult volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41:1399–1402
Ardanuy C, Tubau F, Linares J et al (2005) Distribution of subclasses mefA and mefE of the mefA gene among clinical isolates of macrolide-resistant (M-phenotype) Streptococcus pneumoniae, viridans group streptococci, and Streptococcus pyogenes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49:827–829
Noreddin AM, Roberts D, Nichol K et al (2002) Pharmacodynamic modeling of clarithromycin against macrolide-resistant [PCR-positive mef(A) or erm(B)] Streptococcus pneumoniae simulating clinically achievable serum and epithelial lining fluid free-drug concentrations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46:4029–4034
Hoffman HL, Klepser ME, Ernst EJ et al (2003) Influence of macrolide susceptibility on efficacies of clarithromycin and azithromycin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in a murine lung infection model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47:739–746
Maglio D, Capitano B, Banevicius MA et al (2004) Efficacy of clarithromycin against Streptococcus pneumoniae expressing mef(A)-mediated resistance. Int J Antimicrob Agents 23:498–501
Fuller JD, Low DE (2005) A review of Streptococcus pneumoniae treatment failures associated with fluoroquinolone resistance. Clin Infect Dis 41:118–121
Davidson R, Cavalcanti R, Brunton JL et al (2002) Resistance to levofloxacin and failure of treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. N Engl J Med 346:747–750
Ross JJ, Worthington MG, Gorbach SL et al (2002) Resistance to levofloxacin and failure of treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. New Engl J Med 347:65–67
Kuehnert MJ, Nolte FS, Perlino CA (1999) Fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Ann Intern Med 131:312–313
Wortmann GW, Bennett SP (1999) Fatal meningitis due to levofloxacin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 29:1599–1600
Anderson KB, Tan JS, File TM Jr et al (2003) Emergence of levofloxacin-resistant pneumococci in immunocompromised adults after therapy for community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 37:376–381
Kays MB, Smith DW, Wack ME et al (2002) Levofloxacin treatment failure in a patient with fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. Pharmacotherapy 22:395–399
Urban C, Rahman N, Zhao X et al (2001) Fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae associated with levofloxacin therapy. J Infect Dis 184:794–798
Empey PE, Jennings HR, Thornton AC et al (2001) Levofloxacin failure in a patient with pneumococcal pneumonia. Ann Pharmacother 35:687–690
Weiss K, Restieri C, Laverdiere M et al (2001) A nosocomial outbreak of fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Inf Dis 33:517–522
Roson B, Carratala J, Fernandez-Sabe N et al (2004) Causes and factors associated with early failure in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 164:502–508
Pletz MW, McGee L, Burkhardt O et al (2005) Ciprofloxacin treatment failure in a patient with resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae infection following prior ciprofloxacin therapy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 24:58–60
Clavo-Sanchez AJ, Giron-Gonzalez JA, Lopez-Prieto D et al (1997) Multivariate analysis of risk factors for infection due to penicillin-resistant and multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: a multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 24:1052–1059
Bedos JP, Chevret S, Chastang C et al (1996) Epidemiological features of and risk factors for infection by Streptococcus pneumoniae strains with diminished susceptibility to penicillin: findings of a French survey. Clin Infect Dis 22:63–72
Samore MH, Magill MK, Alder SC et al (2001) High rates of multiple antibiotic resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae from healthy children living in isolated rural communities: association with cephalosporin use and intrafamilial transmission. Pediatrics 108:856–865
Garcia-Leoni ME, Cercenado E, Rodeno P et al (1992) Susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to penicillin: a prospective microbiological and clinical study. Clin Infect Dis 14:427–435
Niederman MS, Mandell LA, Anzueto A et al (2001) Guidelines for the management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Diagnosis, assessment of severity, antimicrobial therapy, and prevention. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 163:1730–1754
Vanderkooi O, Low DE, Green K et al (2005) Predicting antimicrobial resistance in invasive pneumococcal infections. Clin Infect Dis 40:1288–1297
Albanese BA, Roche JC, Pass M et al (2002) Geographic, demographic, and seasonal differences in penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Baltimore. Clin Infect Dis 34:15–21
Kupronis BA, Richards CL, Whitney CG (2003) Invasive pneumococcal disease in older adults residing in long-term care facilities and in the community. J Am Geriatr Soc 51:1520–1525
Ho PL, Tse WS, Tsang KW et al (2001) Risk factors for acquisition of levofloxacin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: a case-control study. Clin Infect Dis 32:701–707
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fuller, J.D., McGeer, A. & Low, D.E. Drug-resistant pneumococcal pneumonia: clinical relevance and approach to management. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 24, 780–788 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-005-0059-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-005-0059-x