Abstract
Pollution of the environment by crude oil is a global problem that changes the geotechnical properties of soil, including its shear strength. In this study, the effects of phytoremediation of soil contaminated with crude oil have been investigated using Ophiopogon japonicus and Platycladus orientalis. The results of phytoremediation were tested at 30 and 60 days of treatment. The results were compared with samples that had not undergone phytoremediation. The soil shear strength parameters were determined using unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression tests at confining pressures of 50, 100, and 150 kPa. The results showed that an increase in the crude oil content led to a decrease in deviatoric stress at failure associated to an axial strain level of 20%. The deviatoric stress in the treated samples was about 15% higher than the samples without phytoremediation. The internal friction angle and cohesion decreased as the crude oil content increased. This decrease was less in the remediated samples, especially those exposed to P. orientalis. The results of the triaxial compression tests revealed the positive effect of phytoremediation in reducing the negative effects of crude oil on the soil shear strength characteristics. SEM images of the contaminated soil samples showed that soil flocculation initially increased with an increase in the crude oil content and time and then decreased subsequent to the application of phytoremediation.
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig1_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig2_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig3_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig4_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig5_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig6_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig7_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig8_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig9_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig10_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig11_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig12_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig13_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig14_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig15_HTML.png)
![](http://media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs10064-021-02161-1/MediaObjects/10064_2021_2161_Fig16_HTML.png)
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdollahzadeh T, Niazi A, Moghadam A, Heydarian Z, Ghasemi-Fasaei R, Kaviani E, Pourdad N (2019) Phytoremediation of petroleum-contaminated soil by Salicornia: from PSY activity to physiological and morphological communications. Environ Technol 40(21):2789–2801
Abousnina RM, Manalo A, Lokuge W, Shiau J (2015) Oil contaminated sand: an emerging and sustainable construction material. Procedia Eng 118:1119–1126
Ahmed HUR, Abduljauwad SN (2017) Molecular-level simulations of oil-contaminated clays. Environ Geotech 6(8):528–542
Aiban SA (1998) The effect of temperature on the engineering properties of oil-contaminated sands. Environ Int 24(1-2):153–161
Al-Adili A, Alsoudany KY, Shakir A (2017) Investigation of crude oil pollution effect on stiffness characteristics of sandy and gypseous soil. Soil Mech Found Eng 54(4):276–282
Al-Sanad HA, Ismael NF (1997) Aging effects on oil-contaminated Kuwaiti sand. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 123(3):290–293
Al-Sanad HA, Eid WK, Ismael NF (1995) Geotechnical properties of oil-contaminated Kuwaiti sand. J Geotech Eng 121(5):407–412
Aprill W, Sims RC (1990) Evaluation of the use of prairie grasses for stimulating polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon treatment in soil. Chemosphere 20(1-2):253–265
Askarbioki MH, Kargaran Bafghi F, Mokhtari M, Khaleghi M (2019) Impact of gasoline contamination on mechanical behavior of sandy clay soil. J Min Environ 10(2):389–399
ASTM (2007a) ASTM D421-07: Standard practice for dry preparation of soil samples for particle-size analysis and determination of soil constants. ASTM International, West Conshohocken
ASTM (2007b) ASTM D422-07: Standard test method for particle size analysis of soils. ASTM International, West Conshohocken
ASTM (2010) ASTM D4318-10: Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. ASTM International, West Conshohocken
ASTM (2012) ASTM D698-12: Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort. ASTM International, West Conshohocken
ASTM (2015) ASTM D2850-15: Standard test method for unconsolidated-undrained triaxial compression test on cohesive soils. ASTM International, West Conshohocken
Barac T, Weyens N, Oeyen L, Taghavi S, van der Lelie D, Dubin D, Spliet M, Vangronsveld J (2009) Field note: hydraulic containment of a BTEX plume using poplar trees. Int J Phytoremediat 11(5):416–424
Chen T, Liu X, Zhang X, Hou Y, Chen X, Tao K (2016) Enhanced Scirpus triqueter phytoremediation of pyrene and lead co-contaminated soil with alkyl polyglucoside and nitrilotriacetic acid combined application. J Soils Sediments 16(8):2090–2096
Cheng L, Zhou Q, Yu B (2019) Responses and roles of roots, microbes, and degrading genes in rhizosphere during phytoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons contaminated soil. Int J Phytoremediat 21(12):1161–1169
Choura M, Salhi S, Cherif F (2009) Mechanical behaviour study of soil polluted by crude oil: case of Sidi El Itayem oilfield, Sfax, Tunisia. Environ Earth Sci 59(3):573–580
Cunningham SD, Anderson TA, Schwab AP, Hsu FC (1996) Phytoremediation of soils contaminated with organic pollutants. Adv Agron 56(1):55–114
Estabragh AR, Beytolahpour I, Moradi M, Javadi AA (2016) Mechanical behavior of a clay soil contaminated with glycerol and ethanol. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 20(5):503–519
Fatima K, Imran A, Amin I, Khan QM, Afzal M (2018) Successful phytoremediation of crude-oil contaminated soil at an oil exploration and production company by plants-bacterial synergism. Int J Phytoremediat 20(7):675–681
Fu D, Teng Y, Shen Y, Sun M, Tu C, Luo Y, Li Z, Christie P (2012) Dissipation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and microbial activity in a field soil planted with perennial ryegrass. Front Environ Sci Eng 6(3):330–335
Ghadyani M, Hamidi A, Hatambeigi M (2019) Triaxial shear behaviour of oil contaminated clays. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 23(1):112–135
González-Moscoso M, Rivera-Cruz MDC, Trujillo-Narcía A (2019) Decontamination of soil containing oil by natural attenuation, phytoremediation and chemical desorption. Int J Phytoremediat 21(8):768–776
Henkel DJ (1960) The shear strength of saturated remoulded clays. In: Proceedings of the ASCE Conference on Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA, pp 533–554
Izdebska-Mucha D, Trzciński J (2008) Effects of petroleum pollution on clay soil microstructure. Geologija 50:68–74
Jackson RB, Canadell J, Ehleringer JR, Mooney HA, Sala OE, Schulze ED (1996) A global analysis of root distributions for terrestrial biomes. Oecologia 108(3):389–411
Jia YG, Wu Q, Shang H, Yang ZN, Shan HX (2011) The influence of oil contamination on the geotechnical properties of coastal sediments in the Yellow River Delta, China. Bull Eng Geol Environ 70(3):517–525
Karkush MO, Abdulkareem ZA (2017) Investigation of the impacts of fuel oil on the geotechnical properties of cohesive soil. Engl J 21(4):127–137
Karkush MO, Abdulkareem MS (2018) Impacts of petroleum fuel oil contamination on the geotechnical properties of fine-grained soils. Indian J Eng 15:228–237
Kermani M, Ebadi T (2012) The effect of oil contamination on the geotechnical properties of fine-grained soils. Soil Sediment Contam 21(5):655–671
Khamehchiyan M, Charkhabi AH, Tajik M (2007) Effects of crude oil contamination on geotechnical properties of clayey and sandy soils. Eng Geol 89(3-4):220–229
Korzeniowska J, Stanislawska-Glubiak E (2019) Phytoremediation potential of Phalaris arundinacea, Salix viminalis and Zea mays for nickel-contaminated soils. Int J Environ Sci Technol 16(4):1999–2008
Kozdrój J, van Elsas JD (2001) Structural diversity of microbial communities in arable soils of a heavily industrialised area determined by PCR-DGGE fingerprinting and FAME profiling. Appl Soil Ecol 17(1):31–42
Li X, Du Y, Wu G, Li Z, Li H, Sui H (2012) Solvent extraction for heavy crude oil removal from contaminated soils. Chemosphere 88(2):245–249
Liu R, Xiao N, Wei S, Zhao L, An J (2014) Rhizosphere effects of PAH-contaminated soil phytoremediation using a special plant named Fire Phoenix. Sci Total Environ 473:350–358
McIntosh P, Kuzovkina YA, Schulthess CP, Guillard K (2016) Breakdown of low-level total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) in contaminated soil using grasses and willows. Int J Phytoremediat 18(7):656–663
Miranda MFA, Freire MBGDS, Almeida BG, Freire AG, Freire FJ, Pessoa LGM (2018) Improvement of degraded physical attributes of a saline-sodic soil as influenced by phytoremediation and soil conditioners. Arch Agron Soil Sci 64(9):1207–1221
Mitchell JK (1993) Fundamentals of soil behavior. John Wiley and Sons, New York
Moavenian MH, Yasrobi SS (2008) Volume change behavior of compacted clay due to organic liquids as permeant. Appl Clay Sci 39(1-2):60–71
Mohammadi A, Ebadi T (2018) Effect of bentonite addition on geotechnical properties of oil-contaminated sandy soil. J Civ Eng Constr 7(4):153–162
Nagendran R, Selvam A, Joseph K, Chiemchaisri C (2006) Phytoremediation and rehabilitation of municipal solid waste landfills and dumpsites: A brief review. Waste Manag 26(12):1357–1369
Nasehi SA, Uromeihy A, Nikudel MR, Morsali A (2016) Influence of gas oil contamination on geotechnical properties of fine and coarse-grained soils. Geotech Geol Eng 34(1):333–345
Nasr AM (2014) Utilisation of oil-contaminated sand stabilised with cement kiln dust in the construction of rural roads. Int J Pavement Eng 15(10):889–905
Nero BF (2021) Phytoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated soils with two plant species: Jatropha curcas and Vetiveria zizanioides at Ghana Manganese Company Ltd. Int J Phytoremediat 23(2):171–180
Oluwatuyi OE, Ojuri OO, Khoshghalb A (2020) Cement-lime stabilization of crude oil contaminated kaolin clay. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 12(1):160–167
Parrish ZD, Banks MK, Schwab AP (2004) Effectiveness of phytoremediation as a secondary treatment for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in composted soil. Int J Phytoremediat 6(2):119–137
Rajabi H, Sharifipour M (2019) Geotechnical properties of hydrocarbon-contaminated soils: a comprehensive review. Bull Eng Geol Environ 78:3685–3717
Ratnaweera P, Meegoda JN (2006) Shear strength and stress-strain behavior of contaminated soils. Geotech Test J 29(2):133–140
Razmjoo K, Adavi Z (2012) Assessment of bermudagrass cultivars for phytoremediation of petroleum contaminated soils. Int J Phytoremediat 14(1):14–23
Reddy KR, Chirakkara RA (2013) Green and sustainable remedial strategy for contaminated site: case study. Geotech Geol Eng 31(6):1653–1661
Rehman H, Abduljauwad SN, Akram T (2007) Geotechnical behavior of oil-contaminated fine-grained soils. Electron J Geotech Eng 12:1–12
Russell K (2005) The use and effectiveness of phytoremediation to treat persistent organic pollutants. Washington, US Environ Prot Agency Off Solid Waste Emerg Response: Technol Innov F Serv Div
Sari GL, Trihadiningrum Y, Ni'matuzahroh N (2018) Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution in soil and surface water by public oil fields in Wonocolo Sub-district, Indonesia. J Ecol Eng 19(2):184–193
Segura A, Ramos JL (2013) Plant–bacteria interactions in the removal of pollutants. Curr Opin Biotechnol 24(3):467–473
Shin EC, Omar MT, Tahmaz AA, Das BM, Atalar C, De Mello LG (2002) Shear strength and hydraulic conductivity of oil-contaminated sand. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 11-15 August 2002, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. AA Balkema Publishers Lisse 1:9–13
Singh SK, Srivastava RK, John S (2009) Studies on soil contamination due to used motor oil and its remediation. Can Geotech J 46(9):1077–1083
Soltani-Jigheh H, Molamahmood HV, Ebadi T, Soorki AA (2018) Effect of oil-degrading bacteria on geotechnical properties of crude oil–contaminated sand. Environ Eng Geosci 24(3):333–341
Urum K, Pekdemir T, Ross D, Grigson S (2005) Crude oil contaminated soil washing in air sparging assisted stirred tank reactor using biosurfactants. Chemosphere 60(3):334–343
USEPA (1996) Nonhalogenated organics using GC/FID. Method 8015-B-96. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
USEPA (2007) Ultrasonic extraction. Method 3550-C-07, SW-846 Manual. U.S. Government Printing Office, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Widdowson MA, Shearer S, Andersen RG, Novak JT (2005) Remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds in groundwater using poplar trees. Environ Sci Technol 39(6):1598–1605
Yan G, Cai B, Chen C, Yue Y, Wang Q, Deng H, Liu S, Guo S (2015) Bioremediation of crude oil contaminated soil. Pet Sci Technol 33(6):717–723
Yang Y, Liu Y, Li Z, Wang Z, Li C, Wei H (2020) Significance of soil microbe in microbial-assisted phytoremediation: an effective way to enhance phytoremediation of contaminated soil. Int J Environ Sci Technol 17:2477–2484
Youdeowei PO (2008) The effect of crude oil pollution and subsequent fire on the engineering properties of soils in the Niger Delta. Bull Eng Geol Environ 67(1):119–121
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Karimi, A.H., Hamidi, A. Effect of phytoremediation on the shear strength characteristics of silty clayey sand. Bull Eng Geol Environ 80, 3903–3922 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02161-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02161-1