Abstract
Modern rates of water discharge often exceed groundwater recharge in arid catchments. This apparent mass imbalance within a catchment may be reconciled through either groundwater flow between topographic drainages and/or the draining of stored groundwater recharged during pluvial periods. This study investigates discrepancies in the modern hydrologic budget of catchments along the west flank of the Andes in northern Chile (21–25° S), focusing on the endorheic Salar de Atacama basin and adjacent basins. Uncertainty-bounded estimates of modern recharge rates are presented, which do not come close to balancing observed modern groundwater discharge within topographic catchments. Two conceptualizations of hydrogeologic catchments discharging to Salar de Atacama were explored with a simplified two-dimensional groundwater model. Results from the models support the interpretation that subsurface interbasin flow and transient drainage of groundwater from storage are required to balance water budgets along the plateau margin. The models further examine whether this system is still responding to climatic forcing (on paleoclimatic time scales) from pluvial periods and highlight general characteristics for similar plateau margin systems including: (1) water level changes at the plateau margin that are highly sensitive to long-term (100–1,000 years) changes in recharge on the plateau, (2) extent and magnitude of the changes in water table, which are controlled by the distribution of hydraulic conductivity at the margin, and (3) the contributing area to the lower-elevation catchment, which is itself dynamic and not coincident with the topographic boundary.
Résumé
Les taux actuels de décharge hydraulique excèdent souvent la recharge des eaux souterraines dans les bassins versants arides. Ce déséquilibre de masse apparent du bilan au sein d’un bassin versant peut être compensé soit par un flux d’eaux souterraines entre les bassins topographiques et/ou par le drainage des eaux souterraines stockées à la suite d’une recharge pendant les périodes de pluie. Cette étude examine les écarts dans le bilan hydrologique actuel des bassins versants le long du versant occidental des Andes, dans le Nord du Chili (21–25° S), en se concentrant sur le bassin endoréique du Salar d’Atacama et les bassins adjacents. Des estimations, limitées par l’incertitude, des taux actuels de recharge sont présentées, qui restent éloignées de l’équilibre de la décharge des eaux souterraines actuelles observé à l’intérieur des bassins versants topographiques. Deux conceptualisations de la décharge des bassins versants topographiques vers le Salar d’Atacama ont été étudiées à l’aide d’un modèle simplifié à deux dimensions des eaux souterraines. Les résultats du modèle étayent l’interprétation selon laquelle le flux souterrain entre les bassins et le drainage transitoire des eaux souterraines depuis la zone de stockage sont nécessaires pour équilibrer les bilans hydriques le long de la marge du plateau. Les modèles examinent plus en détail si ce système répond toujours au forçage climatique (aux échelles de temps paléoclimatiques) après des périodes de pluie et mettent en évidence les caractéristiques générales des systèmes de marge de plateau comparables comprenant: (1) les changements du niveau de l’eau à la limite du plateau qui sont très sensibles aux changements à long terme (100–1,000 ans) de la recharge du plateau, (2) l’extension et l’amplitude des changements du niveau de la surface piézométrique, qui sont contrôlées par la distribution de la conductivité hydraulique sur la marge et (3) la zone de contribution au bassin versant de faible altitude qui a sa dynamique propre et ne coïncide pas avec la limite topographique.
Resumen
Las tasas actuales de descarga de agua con frecuencia son superiores a la recarga de las aguas subterráneas en las cuencas áridas. Este aparente desajuste de masa dentro de una cuenca puede compensarse mediante el flujo subterráneo entre los drenajes topográficos y/o el escurrimiento de las aguas subterráneas almacenadas recargadas durante períodos de lluvia. Este estudio investiga las discrepancias en el balance hidrológico actual de las cuencas hidrográficas a lo largo del flanco occidental de los Andes en el norte de Chile (21–25° S), centrándose en la cuenca endorreica del Salar de Atacama y cuencas adyacentes. Se presentan estimaciones de las tasas de recarga actuales, que no se ajustan al balance de la descarga subterránea observada en las cuencas topográficas. Se exploraron dos concepciones de las cuencas hidrogeológicas que descargan en el Salar de Atacama con un modelo simplificado bidimensional de aguas subterráneas. Los resultados de los modelos apoyan la interpretación de que el flujo intercuenca subterráneo y el drenaje transitorio de agua subterránea desde el almacenamiento son necesarios para compensar los balances hídricos a lo largo del margen de la planicie. Los modelos examinan además si este sistema sigue respondiendo a forzantes climáticas (en escalas de tiempo paleoclimáticas) de los períodos de mayor pluviosidad y destacan las características generales de sistemas similares del margen de la planicie, entre ellas: (1) los cambios de nivel del agua en el margen de la planicie que son muy sensibles a los cambios en la recarga a largo plazo (100–1,000 años), (2) la extensión y magnitud de los cambios en el nivel freático, que están controlados por la distribución de la conductividad hidráulica en el margen, y (3) la zona que contribuye a la cuenca de menor elevación, que es en sí misma dinámica y no coincide con el límite topográfico.
摘要
在干旱流域,现代水的排泄量经常超过地下水的补给量。流域区内这种明显的质量失衡可通过地形控制流域间的地下水流和/或在少雨期补给的储存地下水排泄来解释。本研究调查了智利北部安第斯山脉西侧(21–25°S)各流域现代水文平衡的差异,主要关注Salar de Atacama内流盆地和相邻盆地。提出了不确定性约束的现代补给率估计,这与地形控制流域内观测到的现代地下水排泄量并不平衡。利用简化的二维地下水模型,探索了水文地质流域向Salar de Atacama排泄的两种概念模型。这些模型的结果表明:需要地下盆地间流动和从储层中临时开采地下水,以达到与高原边缘水量预算的平衡。模型进一步检验了该系统是否仍对少雨期气候强迫做出响应(在古气候时间尺度),并强调了类似高原边缘系统的一般特征,包括:(1)高原边缘的水位变化对高源补给的长期变化(100–1,000 years)具有高敏感性,(2)潜水位变化的程度和幅度,受边缘渗透系数分布的控制,(3)较低海拔流域的贡献面积,它本身是动态的并且与地形边界不重合。
Resumo
As taxas modernas de descarga de água frequentemente excedem a recarga de águas subterrâneas em bacias áridas. Este aparente desequilíbrio de massa dentro de uma bacia hidrográfica pode ser reconciliado através do fluxo de água subterrânea entre drenagens topográficas e/ou drenagem da água subterrânea armazenada recarregada durante os períodos pluviais. Este estudo investiga discrepâncias no balanço hidrológico moderno de bacias hidrográficas ao longo do flanco oeste dos Andes, no norte do Chile (21–25° S), com foco na bacia endorreica do Salar do Atacama e nas bacias adjacentes. São apresentadas estimativas limitadas por incertezas das taxas de recarga modernas, que não chegam perto de equilibrar a descarga de águas subterrâneas moderna observada dentro de bacias topográficas. Duas conceituações de bacias hidrogeológicas descarregando para o Salar do Atacama foram exploradas com um modelo simplificado de água subterrânea bidimensional. Os resultados dos modelos apóiam a interpretação de que o fluxo interbacias subterrâneo e a drenagem transitória das águas subterrâneas do armazenamento são necessários para equilibrar os orçamentos de água ao longo da margem do planalto. Os modelos examinam ainda se este sistema ainda está respondendo às forças climáticas (em escalas de tempo paleoclimáticas) de períodos pluviais e destacam as características gerais para sistemas de margem de planalto semelhantes, incluindo: (1) mudanças no nível de água na margem do planalto que são altamente sensíveis a longos termo (100-1000 anos) mudanças na recarga no planalto, (2) extensão e magnitude das mudanças no lençol freático, que são controladas pela distribuição da condutividade hidráulica na margem, e (3) a área de contribuição para a parte inferior - captação de elevação, que é ela própria dinâmica e não coincidente com a fronteira topográfica.
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge Rockwood Lithium, Inc./Albemarle Corporation for their continued support of this and related research to improve the understanding of the hydrogeology and geochemistry of the Salar de Atacama environment. The ASTER DEM and Landsat 8 OLI were retrieved from EarthExplorer, courtesy of the NASA Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center, USGS/Earth Resources Observation and Science Center. The processed and calibrated TRMM 2B31 dataset, a joint mission between NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, was kindly made publicly accessible by B. Bookhagen. The associate editor and reviewers are thanked for constructive comments that improved the manuscript.
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Boutt, D.F., Corenthal, L.G., Moran, B.J. et al. Imbalance in the modern hydrologic budget of topographic catchments along the western slope of the Andes (21–25°S): implications for groundwater recharge assessment. Hydrogeol J 29, 985–1007 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-021-02309-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-021-02309-z