Abstract
Using a water balance to estimate groundwater recharge through the use of remotely sensed evapotranspiration offers a spatial and temporal density of data that other techniques cannot match. However, the estimates are uncertain and therefore ground truthing of the recharge estimates is necessary. This study, conducted in the south-east of South Australia, demonstrated that the raw water-balance estimates of recharge had a negative bias of 45 mm/yr when compared to 190 recharge estimates using the water-table fluctuation method over a 10-year period (2001–2010). As this bias was not related to the magnitude of the recharge estimated using the water-table fluctuation method, a simple offset was used to bias-correct the water-balance recharge estimates. The bias-corrected recharge estimates had a mean residual that was not significantly different from an independent set of 99 historical recharge estimates but did have a large mean absolute residual indicating a lack of precision. The value in this technique is the density of the data (250-m grid over 29,000 km2). The relationship between the water-table depth and net recharge under different vegetation types was investigated. Under pastures, there was no relationship with water-table depth, as the shallow roots do not intercept groundwater. However, under plantation forestry, there was a relationship between net recharge and water-table depth. Net recharge under plantation forestry growing on sandy soils was independent of the water table at around 6 m depth but, under heavier textured soils, the trees were using groundwater from depths of more than 20 m.
Résumé
L’utilisation de bilan d’eau pour estimer la recharge des eaux souterraines via le recours à la mesure de l’évapotranspiration par télédétection fournit une densité spatiale et temporelle de données que d’autres techniques ne peuvent égaler. Toutefois, les estimations de recharge sont incertaines et par suite leur confirmation au sol est nécessaire. Cette étude, menée dans le Sud-Est du Sud de l’Australie, montre que le bilan d’eau estimé présente un biais négatif de 45 mm/an sur 190 estimations de recharge basées sur la méthode de fluctuation de la nappe sur une période de 10 ans (2001–2010). Comme l’incidence de ce biais n’a pas été rapportée à l’amplitude de la recharge estimée en utilisant la méthode de fluctuation de la surface de la nappe libre, une simple correction a été faite pour affranchir la recharge du biais. Ces estimations de la recharge corrigée présentent une moyenne résiduelle lissée ne différent pas de manière significative d’un ensemble indépendant de 99 estimations de recharges historiques mais les moyennes absolues résiduelles présentent un large écart indiquant un manque de précision. L’intérêt de cette technique est la densité des données (grille de 250 m sur 29,000 km2). La relation entre la profondeur de la nappe et la recharge nette pour différents types de végétation a été étudiée. Sous les pâturages, il n’y a pas de relation avec la profondeur de la nappe, car les racines de faible profondeur n’interceptent pas l’eau souterraine. Cependant, sous couvert forestier, il existe une relation entre la recharge nette et la profondeur de la nappe. La recharge nette sous les plantations forestières sur sol sableux est indépendante du niveau piézométrique situé à environ 6 m de profondeur, mais dans des sols plus texturés les arbres prélèvent l’eau souterraine à des profondeurs supérieures à 20 m.
Resumen
El uso de un balance de agua para estimar la recarga de agua subterránea a partir de la evapotranspiración obtenida por teledetección ofrece una densidad espacial y temporal de datos que otras técnicas no pueden brindar. Sin embargo, las estimaciones son inciertas y por lo tanto es necesaria una verificación de campo de la estimación de la recarga. Este estudio, realizado en el sudeste de Australia del Sur, demostró que la estimación del balance bruto de agua tuvo un sesgo negativo de 45 mm/año cuando se la comparó con la estimación de 190 de recarga calculada usando el método de las fluctuaciones del nivel freático en un período de 10 años (2001–2010). Como este sesgo no estaba relacionado con la magnitud de la recarga estimada de acuerdo al método de la fluctuación del nivel freático, se usó una compensación simple para corregir el sesgo de la estimación de recarga del balance de agua. La estimación de la recarga con el sesgo corregido tuvo una media residual que no fue significativamente distinta a conjunto independiente de 99 estimaciones históricas de recarga pero tenían un gran residuo absoluto medio indicando una falta de precisión. El valor en esta técnica es la densidad de los datos (una grilla de 250-m en 29,000 km2). Se investigó la relación entre la profundidad del nivel freático y la recarga neta bajo diferentes tipos de vegetación. Bajo pastura no había relación con la profundidad del nivel freático, dado por las raíces poco profundas que no interceptan el agua subterránea. Sin embargo, bajo plantaciones forestales, había una relación entre la recarga neta y la profundidad del nivel freático. La recarga neta bajo plantaciones forestales en crecimiento en suelos arenosos fue independiente del nivel freático hasta alrededor de 6 m de profundidad, pero en suelos de texturas más pesadas los árboles usan agua subterránea a profundidades de más que 20 m.
摘要
通过轻微感知的蒸发蒸腾量利用水平衡估算地下水补给量提供了其它技术不能匹配的数据时空密度。然而,估算数不确定,因此,需要脚踏实地的补给估算数。这项在南澳大利亚东南部进行的研究证明,原水平衡补给估算数与采用水位波动方法获得的10年期(2001–2010年)190个补给估算数相比有45 mm/yr的负偏差。因为这个偏差与采用水位波动方法估算的补给幅度无关,因此,采用简单的补偿校正了水平衡补给估算数的偏差。这个偏差校正过的补给估算数有平均残差,平均残差与99个历史的补给估算数独立集没有显著差别,但具有很大的平均绝对残差,表明缺乏精度。这项技术的价值就是数据的密度(29,000 km2内250-m的 网格)。研究了不同植被类型条件下水位深度和净补给量的关系。在牧场之下,与水位深度没有关系,因为浅根并不拦截地下水。然而,在人工林之下,净 补给量和水纹深度有关系。在生长在砂质土壤上的人工林之下,净补给量独立于大约6米深的水位之外,但在较重结构土壤下,树木汲取深度超过20 米的地下水。
Resumo
A estimativa da recarga da água subterrânea a partir de um balanço hidrológico calculado com os dados de evapotranspiração detetada remotamente permite definir uma densidade espacial e temporal dos dados que outras técnicas não conseguem relacionar. No entanto, as estimativas são incertas, e por isso é necessário autenticar a recarga no terreno. O presente estudo, realizado no sudeste da Austrália Meridional, demonstrou que a estimativa da recarga calculada através do balanço hídrico da água total apresenta um viés negativo de 45 mm/ano quando comparado com os 190 mm/ano de recarga estimados a partir do método de flutuação do nível da água aplicado a um período de 10 anos (2001–2010). Como o viés calculado não estava relacionado com a magnitude da recarga estimada pelo método de flutuação do nível da água, foi usado um método simples para corrigir o viés da estimativa da recarga a partir do balanço hidrológico. O viés da recarga estimada corrigida apresentou uma média residual semelhante à recarga estimada a partir de um conjunto de 99 dados históricos independentes, apresentando no entanto uma média residual absoluta elevada, indicativa de falta de precisão. O valor desta técnica está na densidade dos dados (malha de 250 m numa área total de 29,000 km2). Foi investigada a relação entre a profundidade do nível freático e a recarga total em áreas cobertas por diferentes tipos de vegetação. Em terrenos de pastagem não se observou qualquer relação com o nível freático, uma vez que as raízes pouco profundas não intercetam a água subterrânea. Já em terrenos ocupados por espécies arbóreas, foi possível estabelecer uma relação entre a recarga total e a profundidade do nível freático. Observou-se também que, nas plantações florestais em solos arenosos, a recarga total é independente do nível freático a partir de cerca de 6 m de profundidade, mas, em solos com texturas mais pesadas, as árvores usam a água subterrânea a partir de profundidades superiores a 20 m.
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Acknowledgements
Funding for this work was provided by the Goyder Institute for Water Research. The water level measurements used in the WTF estimates of recharge were provided by the Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources in South Australia and the Department of Environment and Primary Industries in Victoria. We are also grateful for the thoughtful reviews of Kate Holland, Tanya Doody and three anonymous reviewers which helped improve the manuscript.
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Crosbie, R.S., Davies, P., Harrington, N. et al. Ground truthing groundwater-recharge estimates derived from remotely sensed evapotranspiration: a case in South Australia. Hydrogeol J 23, 335–350 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-014-1200-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-014-1200-7