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Scaling up point-in-space heat tracing of seepage flux using bed temperatures as a quantitative proxy

Répartition spatiale de la température ponctuelle d’une couche comme marqueur quantitatif de traçage d’un flux percolant

Adopción de escalas mayores en el trazado puntual del calor del flujo del escurrimiento usando las temperaturas del lecho como una representación cuantitativa

利用河床温度作为定量替代指标来提高渗流量热示踪的空间点的尺度

Ampliação da escala de traçagem pontual de calor de fluxo da drenância usando temperaturas de camadas como um indicador quantitativo

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Abstract

It is challenging to quantify reach-scale surface-water–groundwater interactions, while maintaining the fine-scale spatial resolution required in hyporheic studies. One-dimensional heat-transport modeling was used to simulate streambed fluxes at discrete points using time-series temperature records. A predictive relationship was then developed between point-in-time streambed temperature and modeled flux rates. Flux was mapped at high spatial resolution by applying the predictive relationship to mapped streambed temperatures, which allowed for high-resolution quantification of flux by proxy. Inferred patterns of flux are consistent with morphology and yielded a net flux to a 30-m stream reach of 1.0 L s–1. Discharge of saline groundwater (5.7 g L–1 Cl) allowed for comparison between the temperature proxy method and geochemical variability. Maximum upwelling locations (>35 cm day–1) were spatially coincident with areas of high conductance at the bed interface (5–25 mS cm–1). Differences between gross flux estimates from heat and geochemical methods are attributed to differences in the spatial extent over which estimates were derived and limited sensitivity of the temperature-as-proxy method. When bed temperatures are near their inherent limits (groundwater and stream-water temperatures) the flux magnitude can be underestimated. Caution must be used when determining gross, reach-scale fluxes from temperature-as-proxy methods when flux rates are outside the sensitivity limits.

Résumé

C’est un défi de quantifier à l’échelle du bief les interactions eau de nappe-eau de surface, tout en conservant la résolution spatiale à la petite échelle nécessaires aux études hyporhéiques. Une modélisation unidimensionnelle du transport de chaleur a été utilisée pour simuler les flux d’écoulement entre des points distincts en utilisant des enregistrements temporels de la température. Une relation prévisionnelle a été développée entre la température instantanée du lit et les flux modélisés. Le flux a été cartographié en haute résolution spatiale en appliquant la relation prévisionnelle aux températures du lit cartographiées, ce qui a permis une quantification haute résolution du flux par marqueur. Les caractéristiques du flux déduites sont conformes à la morphologie et fournissent sur un bief de 30-m un flux net de 1.0 L s–1. La décharge d’eau de nappe saline (5.7 g L–1 Cl) a permis la comparaison entre la méthode de marqueur température et la variabilité géochimique. Les emplacements de remontée maximum (>35 cm jour–1) coïncident dans l’espace avec les zones de conductance élevée à l’interface des couches (5–25 mS cm–1). Les différences entre les estimations de flux brut par les méthodes de température et géochimiques sont attribuées à l’échelle spatiale des estimations et à la sensibilité limitée de la méthode des températures en tant que marqueur. Quand les températures sont proche de leurs limites respectives (eau de nappe et eau s’écoulement), l’intensité du flux peut être sous estimée. La prudence s’impose quand on évalue les flux brut à l’échelle du bief à partir de méthodes basées sur la température en tant marqueur quand les flux sont hors limites de sensibilité.

Resumen

Es un desafío cuantificar el alcance de la escala de las interacciones entre el agua superficial y el agua subterránea, mientras se mantiene en la escala fina la resolución espacial requerida en los estudios hiporreicos. Se usó un modelo unidimensional de transporte de calor para simular los flujos de la corriente del lecho del río en puntos discretos usando series temporales de registros de temperaturas. Se desarrolló entonces una relación predictiva entre la temperatura de la corriente del lecho punto a punto en el tiempo y los ritmos modelados del flujo. El flujo fue mapeado con una alta resolución espacial aplicando la relación predictiva para el mapeado de las temperaturas de la corriente del lecho, las cuales permitieron una cuantificación de alta resolución del flujo para la representación. Los esquemas inferidos de flujo son consistentes con la morfología y brindaron un flujo neto para un tramo de la corriente de 30-m de 1.0 L s–1. La descarga de agua subterránea salina (5.7 g L–1 Cl) permitió por comparación entre el método de la representación de la temperatura y la variabilidad geoquímica. Los puntos de las máximas surgencias (>35 cm day–1) fueron espacialmente coincidentes con las área de alta conductancia en la interfase del lecho (5–25 mS cm–1). Las diferencias entre la estimación gruesa del flujo a partir de métodos calóricos y geoquímicos son atribuidos a diferencias en la extensión espacial sobre la cual las estimaciones fueron deducidas y a los límites de sensibilidad de la temperatura como el método de representación de la temperatura. Cuando las temperaturas del lecho están cercanas a sus límites inherentes (temperaturas del agua subterránea y de la corriente) la magnitud del flujo puede ser subestimada. Se debe tener cuidado cuando se determinan los alcances del flujo a una escala gruesa a partir métodos de representación por temperatura cuando los ritmos de flujo están fuera de los límites de sensibilidad.

摘要

在保持交错带研究中精细尺度的空间分辨率的前提下定量化确定河段尺度地表水和地下水相互作用具有挑战性。利用温度随时间变化的序列,利用一维热运移模型模拟在不同离散点的河床流。建立了不同时间点间的河床温度和模拟流速间的预测性关系。通过把预测性关系应用到河床温度上,把流量投影到高空间分辨率的图上,这考虑到通过代替的流量的高分辨率定量化。流量的推断模式和形态是一致的,并得到一条30 m的河流的净流量为1 L/s。地下咸水(5.7 g L–1 Cl) 排泄考虑到温度替代方法和地球化学变化性的对比。最大涌水点(>35 cm day–1)在空间上与层界面处高电导区域(5–25 mS cm–1)相吻合。用热示踪方法和地球化学方法评估得到的总流量的不同是因为空间范围的不同,评估结果源自选定的空间范围,并且对温度替代方法的敏感性是有限的。当河床温度接近它内在的极限时(地下水和河水温度)流量的数值可能被低估。当流速在灵敏限外时,利用温度替代方法评估河段尺度的总流量时应谨慎。

Resumo

É desafiador quantificar as interações água superficial-água subterrânea à escala da linha de água, mantendo a resolução espacial de pequena escala necessária nos estudos hiporreicos. A modelação unidimensional de transporte de calor foi usada para simular fluxos em sedimentos do leito em pontos discretizados, usando séries temporais de registo da temperatura. Seguidamente, foi desenvolvida uma relação de predição entre a temperatura do sedimento do leito no ponto e no tempo e as taxas de fluxo modeladas. O fluxo foi mapeado com uma resolução espacial elevada, através da aplicação da relação de predição às temperaturas mapeadas do sedimento do leito, o que permitiu quantificar o fluxo através desse indicador, com elevada resolução. Os padrões de fluxo inferidos são compatíveis com a morfologia e conduzem a um fluxo bruto para um comprimento de linha de água de 30 m de 1.0 L s–1. A descarga de água subterrânea salina (5.7 g L–1 Cl) permitiu a comparação entre o método indicador da temperatura e a variabilidade geoquímica. Os locais de máximo fluxo ascendente (>35 cm dia–1) coincidem com as áreas de elevada condutância na interface do leito (5–25 mS cm–1). As diferenças entre as estimativas do fluxo bruto a partir de métodos de calor e a partir de métodos geoquímicos são atribuídas às diferenças na extensão espacial a partir da qual se efetuaram as estimativas e também devido à limitada sensibilidade do método indicador de temperatura. Quando as temperaturas do leito estão próximas dos seus limites inerentes (as temperaturas da água subterrânea e da linha de água), a magnitude do fluxo pode ser subestimada. Devem ser tomadas precauções quando se determinam os fluxos brutos à escala da linha de água a partir de métodos indicadores de temperatura quando as taxas de fluxo estão fora dos limites de sensibilidade.

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Acknowledegments

We thank Honeywell, Inc. and Al LaBuz for access to the field site and groundwater monitoring wells. We specifically acknowledge Jim Mastroianni, Lisa Kurian, Nate Kranes and Guy Swenson for help with field work and site access. The manuscript benefited from the constructive and detailed comments provided by the associated editor, anonymous reviewers and Christine Hatch. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. EAR-0901480. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Lautz, L.K., Ribaudo, R.E. Scaling up point-in-space heat tracing of seepage flux using bed temperatures as a quantitative proxy. Hydrogeol J 20, 1223–1238 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-012-0870-2

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