Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Management of freshwater lenses on small Pacific islands

Gestion des lentilles d’eau douce dans de petites îles du Pacifique

Gestión de lentes de agua dulce en pequeñas islas del Pacífico

Gestão de lentículas de água doce em pequenas ilhas do Pacífico

  • Paper
  • Published:
Hydrogeology Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The nature of shallow aquifers and the impacts of seawater intrusion in small islands within the Pacific Ocean are reviewed. Many Pacific islands rely on shallow fresh groundwater lenses in highly permeable aquifers, underlain and surrounded by seawater, as their principal freshwater source. It is argued here that, in small islands, the nature of fresh groundwater lenses and their host aquifers coupled with frequent natural and ever-present anthropogenic threats make them some of the most vulnerable aquifer systems in the world. A simple steady-state approximation is used to provide insight into the key climatic, hydrogeological, physiographic, and management factors that influence the quantity of, and saline intrusion into freshwater lenses. Examples of the dynamic nature of freshwater lenses as they respond to these drivers are given. Natural and human-related threats to freshwater lenses are discussed. Long dry periods strongly coupled to sea surface temperatures impact on the quantity and salinity of fresh groundwater. The vulnerability of small island freshwater lenses dictates careful assessment, vigilant monitoring, appropriate development, and astute management. Strategies to aid future groundwater sustainability in small islands are presented and suggested improvements to donor and aid programs in water are also advanced.

Résumé

La nature des aquifères peu profonds et les impacts de l’intrusion d’eau de mer dans les pays des petites îles de l’Océan Pacifique sont examinés. De nombreux territoires des îles du Pacifique comptent sur des lentilles d’eau douce peu profondes au sein d’aquifères extrêmement perméables, supportés et entourés par l’eau de mer,comme leur principale source d’eau douce. On indique ici que, dans les petites îles, la nature des lentilles d’eau douce souterraine et les aquifères hôtes associés à des menaces naturelles fréquentes et anthropiques toujours présentent en font quelques-uns des systèmes aquifères les plus vulnérables au monde. Un simple approximation en état permanent est utilisée pour fournir un aperçu des facteurs clés climatiques, hydrogéologiques, physiographiques et de gestion qui influent sur l’importance de l’intrusion d’eau saline dans les lentilles d’eau douce. Des exemples de la nature dynamique des lentilles d’eau douce lorsqu’elles répondent à ces causes sont donnés. Les menaces d’origine naturelle et humaine pour les lentilles d’eau douce sont examinées. De longues périodes sèches fortement associées aux températures de surface de la mer ont un impact sur la quantité et la salinité de l’eau douce souterraine. La vulnérabilité des lentilles d’eau douce des petites îles dictent une évaluation minutieuse, un contrôle rigoureux, une mise valeur appropriée et une gestion clairvoyante. Des stratégies destinées à assister la durabilité à venir de l’eau souterraine dans les petites îles sont exposées et des améliorations suggérées au décideur et des programmes d’assistance pour l’eau sont aussi présentés.

Resumen

Se revisa la naturaleza de los acuíferos someros y los impactos de la intrusión de agua de mar en países de pequeñas islas en el Océano Pacífico. Muchos países de islas del Pacífico dependen de lentes de agua subterránea dulce someras en acuíferos altamente permeables, con el agua de mar subyacente y circundante, como su principal fuente de agua dulce. Se argumenta aquí, que en las pequeñas islas, la naturaleza de los lentes de agua subterránea dulce y sus acuíferos hospedantes asociados a frecuentes amenazas tanto naturales y como omnipresentes amenazas antrópicas, hacen que ellas sean los sistemas acuíferos más vulnerables en el mundo. Una simple aproximación en estado estacionario es usada para proveer conocimiento sobre los factores climáticos, hidrogeológicos, fisiográficos y de gestión claves que influyen en la cantidad de, e intrusión salina en los lentes de agua dulce. Se dan ejemplos de la naturaleza dinámica de las lentes de agua dulce en respuesta a estos forzantes. Se discuten las amenazas naturales y antrópicas a las lentes de agua dulce. Extensos períodos secos fuertemente asociados a la temperatura superficial del mar afectan la cantidad y salinidad del agua subterránea dulce. La vulnerabilidad de las lentes de agua dulce de pequeñas islas exige una evaluación cuidadosa, un monitoreo de alertas, un desarrollo apropiado y una gestión astuta. Se presentan las estrategias para ayudar a la sustentabilidad futura de las aguas subterráneas en pequeñas islas y se anticipan sugerencias para mejorar los programas de contribución y ayuda para el agua.

Resumo

É passada em revista a natureza dos aquíferos superficiais e os impactes da intrusão marinha em pequenos países insulares do Oceano Pacífico. Muitos países insulares do Pacífico dependem de lentes de água subterrânea pouco profundas em aquíferos altamente permeáveis, subjacentes e rodeados por água do mar, como a sua principal fonte de água doce. Argumenta-se aqui que, em pequenas ilhas, a natureza das lentes de água doce subterrânea e dos seus aquíferos de acolhimento, juntamente com as sempre presentes, e naturalmente frequentes, ameaças antropogénicas, os torna nuns dos sistemas aquíferos mais vulneráveis em todo o mundo. Uma simples aproximação em regime permanente (“steady-state”) é utilizada para dar uma ideia dos factores chave de ordem climática, hidrogeológica, fisiográfica, e de gestão, que influenciam a quantidade e a intrusão salina nas lentes de água doce. São apresentados exemplos da natureza dinâmica das lentes de água doce e a forma como elas respondem a esses factores. São discutidas as ameaças naturais e humanas relacionadas com as lentículas de água doce. Longos períodos secos, fortemente associados à temperatura da superfície do mar, produzem impacte sobre a quantidade e salinidade da água doce. A vulnerabilidade das lentículas de água doce em pequenas ilhas dita uma avaliação cuidadosa, uma monitorização vigilante, um desenvolvimento adequado e uma gestão astuta. São apresentadas estratégias para auxiliar a sustentabilidade futura das águas subterrâneas em ilhas pequenas, e são dadas sugestões para uma melhor acção dos doadores e dos programas de ajuda.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • ABOM (2009) Australian Bureau of Meteorology Pacific Islands Climate Prediction Project (PI-CPP) http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/pi-cpp/. Cited 23 July 2009

  • Alam K, Falkland A (1997) Vulnerability to climate change of the Bonriki freshwater lens, Tarawa. Prepared for Ministry of Environment and Social Development, Tarawa, Republic of Kiribati, September 1997

  • Alam K, Falkland A, Mueller N (2002) Sustainable Yield of Bonriki and Buota Freshwater Lenses. SAPHE Project, Hydrogeology Component. Tarawa, Republic of Kiribati, February 2002

  • Ali M, Hay J, Maul G, Sem G (2001) Chapter 9: small island states. In Watson RT, Zinyowera MC, Moss RH, Dokken DJ (eds) IPCC Special Report on the Regional Impacts of Climate Change. An Assessment of Vulnerability. UNEP and WMO. www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_sr/?src=/climate/ipcc/regional/index.htm. Cited 23 July 2009

  • Anthony SS (1992) Electromagnetic methods for mapping freshwater lenses on Micronesian atoll islands. J Hydrol 137:99–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayers JF (1981) Estimate of recharge to the freshwater lens of northern Guam. Tech. Rpt. No. 21, Water Resources Research Center, University of Guam

  • Ayers JF, Vacher HL (1986) Hydrogeology of an atoll island, a conceptual model from a detailed study of a Micronesian example. Ground Water 24(2):185–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badon Ghijben W (1889) Nota in verband met de voorgenomen putboring nabij Amsterdam. (Notes on the probable results of the proposed well drilling near Amsterdam). Tijdschrift het Koninklijk Instituut voor Ingenieurs. The Hague, pp 8–22

  • Bower R, Crennan L, Navatoga A (2005) The sanitation park project. Fiji. SOPAC Technical Report No. 386, SOPAC, Suva, Fiji

  • Buddemeier RW, Holladay GL (1977) Atoll hydrology, island ground-water characteristics and their relationship to diagenesis. Proc. 3rd Internat. Coral Reef Symposium, Miami, 2:167–174

  • Burns WCG (2002) Pacific Island developing country water resources and climate change. In: Gleick PH, Burns WCG, Chalecki EL, Cohen M (eds) World's water 2002–2003: the biennial report on freshwater resources. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp 113–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapman TG (1985) The use of water balances for water resource estimation with special reference to small islands. Bulletin No. 4. Pacific Regional Team. Australian Development Assistance Bureau, Canberra, Australia, pp 34

  • Crennan L, Berry G (2002) Review of community-based issues and activities in waste management, pollution prevention and improved sanitation in the Pacific Islands Region. IWP Technical Report 2002/03. In Wright A, Stacey N (eds) Issues for community based sustainable resource management and conservation: considerations for the Strategic Action Plan for the International Waters of the Pacific Small Island Developing States. The International Waters Programme, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia, Samoa

  • Crennan L, Fatai T, Fakatava T (1998) Groundwater Pollution Study, Completion of Phase Two, Lifuka, Kingdom of Tonga, report submitted to UNESCO Office of Pacific States, Apia, Samoa, December 1998

  • Dale WR, Waterhouse BC, Risk GF, Petty DR (1986) Coral island hydrology, a training guide for field practice. Commonwealth Science Council, Technical Publication Series, No. 214

  • Depledge D (1997) Sanitation for Small Islands: Guidelines for selection and development. SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 250. SOPAC, Fiji, September 1997

  • Detay M, Alessandrello E, Come P, Groom I (1989) Groundwater contamination and pollution in Micronesia. J Hydrol 112:149–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DHC (1982) Kiribati – Tarawa water resources, Pre-design study. Prepared for the Australian Development Assistance Bureau by the Australian Government Department of Housing and Construction

  • Dijon R (1983) Some aspects of water resources planning and management in smaller islands. Natural Resources Forum, United Nations 7(2):137–144

  • Falkland A (1992) Review of Tarawa freshwater lenses, Republic of Kiribati. Report HWR92/681. Hydrology and Water Resources Branch, ACT Electricity and Water. Prepared for Australian International Development Assistance Bureau

  • Falkland A (1993) Hydrology and water management on small tropical islands. In Gladwell JS (ed) Proc. Symp. Hydrology of Warm Humid Regions. International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publ. No. 216:263–303

  • Falkland A (1999) Water management for Funafuti, Tuvalu. Prepared for the Australian Agency for International Development, Canberra, Australia, August 1999

  • Falkland A (2000a) Penrhyn, Cook Islands, Report on Water Investigations, June 2000. Prepared for Australian Agency for International Development, August 2000

  • Falkland A (2000b) An outline of recent water supply improvements for Pangai-Hihifo, Lifuka, Kingdom of Tonga. Prepared for Tonga Water Board, August 2000

  • Falkland A (2002) Tropical island hydrology and water resources: current knowledge and future needs. In: Gladwell JS (ed) Proc. Second International Colloquium on Hydrology and Water Resources Management in the Humid Tropics, 22–25 March 1999, UNESCO-IHP, CATHALAC, Panama City, Panama

  • Falkland A (2004) Preliminary Design Report for Four Infiltration Galleries at Bonriki, Tarawa, Kiribati. SAPHE Project, Hydrogeology Component. Tarawa, Republic of Kiribati, August 2004

  • Falkland A, Brunel JP (1993) Review of hydrology and water resources of humid tropical islands. In: Bonell M, Hufschmidt MM, Gladwell JS (eds) Hydrology and water management in the humid tropics. Cambridge University Press, UNESCO, International Hydrology Series, pp 135–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkland A, Woodroffe CD (1997) Geology and hydrogeology of Tarawa and Christmas Island, Kiribati. Chapter 19. In: Vacher HL, Quinn TM (eds) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate islands. Developments in Sedimentology 54. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 577–610

    Google Scholar 

  • Foale M (2003) The coconut odyssey: the bounteous possibilities of the tree of life. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, p 132

    Google Scholar 

  • Furness LJ (1997) Hydrogeology of carbonate islands of the Kingdom of Tonga. Chapter 18. In: Vacher HL, Quinn TM (eds) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate islands. Developments in Sedimentology 54. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 565–576

    Google Scholar 

  • Furness LJ, Gingerich S (1993) Estimation of recharge to the fresh water lens of Tongatapu, Kingdom of Tonga. In: Gladwell JS (ed) International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publ. No. 216:317–322

  • Griggs JE, Peterson FL (1993) Ground-water flow dynamics and development strategies at the atoll scale. Ground Water 31(2):209–220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • GWP (2006) Groundwater resources investigations on Niue Island for Government and South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), GWP Consultants, Charlbury, Oxford, United Kingdom, March 2006

  • Hamlin SN, Anthony SS (1987) Ground-water resources of the Laura area, Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands, USGS Water Resources Investigation Report 87–4047, Hawaii, U.S.A.

  • Hein JR, Gray SC, Richmond BR (1997) Geology and hydrogeology of the Cook Islands. Chapter 16. In: Vacher HL, Quinn TM (eds) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate islands. Developments in Sedimentology 54. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 503–535

    Google Scholar 

  • Herzberg A (1901) Die Wasserversorgung einiger Nordseebäder (The water supply on parts of the North Sea coast). Jour für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, München 44:815–819 45:842–844

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt CD, Peterson FL (1980) Groundwater resources of Kwajalein island, Marshall Islands. Tech. Rpt. 126, Water Resources Research Centre, Univ. of Hawaii

  • IETC (1998) Source book of alternative technologies for freshwater augmentation in Small Island Developing States. International Environmental Technology Centre in collaboration with South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission and the Water Branch of UNEP, Technical Publication Series No. 8

  • Jacobson G, Hill PJ (1980) Groundwater resources of Niue Island. Bureau of Mineral Resources Record No. 1980/14, Canberra, Australia

  • Jacobson G, Hill PJ (1988) Hydrogeology and groundwater resources of Nauru Island, Central Pacific Ocean. Bureau of Mineral Resources Record No. 1988/12 Canberra, Australia

  • Jacobson G, Taylor FJ (1981) Hydrogeology of Tarawa atoll, Kiribati. Bureau of Mineral Resources Record, No. 1981/31, Canberra, Australia

  • Jacobson G, Hill PJ, Ghassemi F (1997) Geology and hydrogeology of Nauru Island. Chapter 24. In: Vacher HL, Quinn TM (eds) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate islands. Developments in Sedimentology 54. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 707–742

    Google Scholar 

  • Mather JD (1973) The groundwater resources of southern Tarawa, Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Hydrogeological Department, Institute of Geological Sciences, UK, 54 pp

  • Mink JF, Vacher HL (1997) Hydrogeology of northern Guam. Chapter 25. In: Vacher HL, Quinn TM (eds) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate islands. Developments in Sedimentology 54. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 743–759

    Google Scholar 

  • Nullet D (1987) Water balance of Pacific atolls. Water Resour Bull 23(6):1125–1132

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberdorfer JA, Buddemeier RW (1984) Atoll island groundwater contamination: rapid recovery from saltwater intrusion. Annual Meeting of the Association of Engineering Geologists. Boston, Mass. USA, 9–11 Oct. 1984

  • Oberdorfer JA, Buddemeier RW (1988) Climate change, effects on reef island resources. Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium, Townsville, Australia, 3:523–527

  • Oberdorfer JA, Hogan PJ, Buddemeier RW (1990) Atoll island hydrogeology, flow and fresh water occurrence in a tidally dominated system. J Hydrol 120:327–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacific HYCOS (2009) Pacific hydrological cycle observing system. http://pacific-hycos.org/. Cited 23 July 2009

  • Peterson FL (1997) Hydrogeology of the Marshall Islands, Chap. 20. In: Vacher HL, Quinn TM (eds) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate islands. Developments in Sedimentology 54. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 611–636

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards R (1991) Atoll vulnerability: the storm waves on Tokelau on 28 February 1987. In: Hay J (ed) South Pacific environments: interactions with weather and climate. University of Auckland, Environmental Science, pp 155–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson and Dumbleton International (1978) Water resources, Tarawa, report on feasibility study. Prepared for the UK Ministry of Overseas Development on behalf of the Government of the Gilbert Islands

  • Scott D, Overmars M, Falkland A, Carpenter C (2003) Pacific dialogue on climate and water. synthesis report. SOPAC, February 2003, 36pp

  • SOPAC (2005) First Groundwater Training Course. Hydrological training on surface water and groundwater, SOPAC Secretariat, 4th – 22nd April 2005, sponsored by NZAid, NIWA, UNESCO and SOPAC

  • SOPAC (2006) Second Groundwater Training Course. Hydrological training on surface water and groundwater, SOPAC Secretariat, 12th – 30th June 2006, sponsored by NZAid, NIWA and SOPAC

  • SOPAC (2009) Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene website http://www.pacificwater.org/index.cfm. Cited 23 July 2009.

  • Spennemann DHR (2006) Freshwater lens, settlement patterns, resource use and connectivity in the Marshall Islands. Transforming Cultures eJournal 1(2):44–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart M (1988) Electromagnetic mapping of fresh-water lenses on small oceanic islands. Ground Water 26(2):187–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry JP (2007) Tropical cyclones, climatology and impacts in the South Pacific. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood MR, Peterson FL, Voss CI (1992) Groundwater lens dynamics of atoll islands. Water Resour Res 28(11):2889–2902

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNEP (2002) A directory of environmentally sound technologies for the integrated management of solid, liquid and hazardous waste for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Pacific Region. Compiled by OPUS International in conjunction with South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), July 2002

  • UNESCO (1991) Hydrology and water resources of small islands, a practical guide. Studies and reports on hydrology No 49. prepared by A Falkland (ed) and E Custodio with contributions from A Diaz Arenas and L Simler and case studies submitted by others. UNESCO, Paris, France

  • Vacher HL, Quinn TM (eds) (1997) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate Islands. Developments in Sedimentology 54. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Velde M (2006) Agricultural and climatic impacts on the groundwater resources of a small island. Measuring and modeling water and solute transport in soil and groundwater on Tongatapu. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Biological, agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Catholic University of Louvain, 263 pp

  • van der Velde M, Green SR, Gee GW, Vanclooster M, Clothier BE (2005) Evaluation of drainage from passive suction and nonsuction flux meters in a volcanic clay soil under tropical conditions. Vadose Zone J 4:1201–1209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Velde M, Javaux M, Vanclooster M, Clothier BE (2006) El Niño-Southern Oscillation determines the salinity of the freshwater lens under a coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean. Geophys Res Lett 33:L21403. doi:10.1029/2006GL027748

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Velde M, Green SR, Vanclooster M, Clothier BE (2007) Sustainable development in small island developing states: agricultural intensification, economic development, and freshwater resources management on the coral atoll of Tongatapu. Ecol Econ 61:456–468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volker RE, Mariño MA, Rolston DE (1985) Transition zone width in ground water on ocean atolls. J Hydraul Eng 111(4):659–676

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voss CI (1984) SUTRA, A finite-element simulation model for saturated-unsaturated, fluid-density-dependent ground-water flow with energy transport or chemically-reactive single-species solute transport. USGS Water Resources Investigation Report 84–4389, 409 pp

  • Voss CI, Boldt D, Sharpiro AM (1997) A graphical-user interface for the US Geological Survey’s SUTRA code using Argus ONE (for Simulation of Variable–Density Saturated-Unsaturated Ground-Water Flow with Solute or Energy Transport), US Geological Survey, Open-File Report 97–421, Reston, Virginia

  • Wheatcraft SW, Buddemeier RW (1981) Atoll island hydrology. Ground Water 19(3):311–320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler C, Aharon P (1997) Geology and hydrogeology of Niue. Chap. 17. In: Vacher HL, Quinn TM (eds) Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate islands. Developments in Sedimentology 54. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 537–564

    Google Scholar 

  • White I, Falkland A (2004) Effects of pumping from infiltration galleries on crop health and production in low coral islands: groundwater impacts. ACIAR Project LWR1/2001/050, Equitable Groundwater Management for the Development of Atolls and Small Islands, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. November 2004

  • White I, Falkland A, Scott D (1999a) Droughts in small coral islands: Case study, South Tarawa, Kiribati. UNESCO IHP-V, Technical Documents in Hydrology, No. 26, UNESCO, Paris, 55 pp

  • White I, Falkland A, Crennan L, Jones P, Metutera T, Etuati B, Metai E (1999b) Groundwater recharge in low coral islands Bonriki, South Tarawa, Kiribati. Issues, traditions and conflicts in groundwater use and management. UNESCO IHP-V, Technical Documents in Hydrology, No. 25, UNESCO, Paris, France, 39 pp

  • White I, Falkland A, Etuati B, Metai E, Metutera T (2002) Recharge of fresh groundwater lenses: field study, Tarawa Atoll, Kiribati. Hydrology and Water Resources Management in the Humid Tropics, Proc. Second International Colloquium, 22–26 March 1999, Panama, Republic of Panama, IHP-V Technical Documents in Hydrology No 52, UNESCO, Paris, 2002, 299–332

  • White I, Falkland A, Perez P, Metutera T, Metai E (2003) Water resources of Tarawa Atoll, Republic of Kiribati. ACIAR Project LWR1/2001/050 Equitable Groundwater Management for the Development of Atolls and Small Islands, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, May 2003

  • White I, Falkland A, Metutera T, Metai E (2005) Effects of landuse on groundwater quality in a low coral atoll: coliforms, nutrients and metals. ACIAR Project LWR1/2001/050, Equitable Groundwater Management for the Development of Atolls and Small Islands, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, May 2005

  • White I, Falkland A, Perez P, Dray A, Metutera T, Metai E, Overmars M (2007a) Challenges in freshwater management in low coral atolls. J Clean Prod 15:1522–1528

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White I, Falkland A, Metutera T, Metai E, Overmars M, Perez P, Dray A (2007b) Climatic and human influences on groundwater in low Atolls. Vadose Zone J 6:581–590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White I, Falkland A, Metutera T, Katatia M, Abete-Reema T, Overmars M, Perez P, Dray A (2008) Safe water for people in low, small island Pacific nations: the rural-urban dilemma. Development 51:282–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White I, Falkland A, Fatai T (2009) Vulnerability of groundwater in Tongatapu, Kingdom of Tonga: groundwater evaluation and monitoring assessment. Report to Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission, EU EDF8, February 2009, ANU, Canberra

  • WHO (2004) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. 3rd edn., including addenda in 2006 and 2008. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2008) Sanitation, hygiene and drinking-water in the Pacific island countries. Converting commitment into action. World Health Organization and SOPAC, 2008

  • Wooding RA (1963) Convection in a saturated porous media at large Rayleigh number or Peclet number. J Fluid Mech 15:527–544

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wooding RA (1964) Mixing-layer flows in a saturated porous media. J Fluid Mech 19:103–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodroffe CD (2008) Reef-island topography and the vulnerability of atolls to sea-level rise. Global Planet Change 62:7–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank (2000) Cities, seas and storms, managing change in Pacific island economies, Volume IV, Adapting to Climate Change, Papua New Guinea and Pacific Island Country Unit, World Bank, November 2000

Download references

Acknowledgements

Parts of this work were supported by the Kiribati Adaptation Program Phase II supported by AusAID, NZaid, and the World Bank, by the European Development Fund, by the Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) and by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Project LWR1/2001/050. We are grateful to our colleagues throughout the Pacific who have generously worked with us and have taught us a great deal.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tony Falkland.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

White, I., Falkland, T. Management of freshwater lenses on small Pacific islands. Hydrogeol J 18, 227–246 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-009-0525-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-009-0525-0

Keywords

Navigation